下载掌阅APP，畅读海量书库
立即打开
论文写作资料可分为一手资料（Primary/First-Hand Sources）和二手资料（Second-Hand Sources）。一手资料是原创（Original）的观点（包括论据和论证），二手资料则是对原创观点的综述和评论。
开题前就该对资料的可靠性、权威性、相关性、可用性和时新性进行甄别。
当然，权威性不等于正确性，却最大限度保证了资料的可靠性。一般来说，在学术刊物上发表的文献是可靠文献，在重要学术刊物上发表的文献是权威文献。之所以说它们可靠或权威，是因为这些资料在正式发表前大多经过或必须经过匿名审稿，是同行专家认可的文献资料。互联网上虽然有大量的文献资源，甚至有不少很有启发性的非正式发表的论文，然而，由于这类论文未经同行专家匿名审读，可靠性尚不得而知，在论文写作中不宜作为主要参考文献。国外的学术期刊通常都是匿名审稿的，国内只有少数期刊实行了匿名审稿制。
目前，国内刊物的可靠性或权威性是依据下列期刊评估机构的标准来确认的：
（1）南京大学中国社会科学研究评价中心的《中文社会科学引文索引（CSSCI）（2006）》的来源期刊。
（2）中国社会科学院文献信息中心的《中国人文社会科学核心期刊要览（2004年版）》的核心期刊。
（3）北京大学图书馆和北京高校图书馆期刊工作研究会的《中文核心期刊要目总览（2008 年版）》的核心期刊。
（4）《南京大学CSSCI来源核心期刊目录（2008—2009 年）》。
确认可靠性或权威性的另一个重要途径，是查找、阅读相关的书评（Book /Article Review）和关注文献的引用情况。长期不被学术界关注的文献资料往往是不值得使用的文献资料。
资料的相关性或可用性不仅会影响论文质量，而且在资料收集阶段对提高以后的写作效率极其重要。查找资料时宜多关注题名、副标题、序言、目录、附录和索引所提供的信息，要依据自己的论文选题做好取舍。
时新性是衡量论文作者是否了解学科发展的一把重要标尺。新的理念、新的方法、新的事实的发现以及相关学科的进展必将推动学科的发展、修正乃至推翻以往的结论，将直接影响学位论文的写作质量。
我们知道，二手的文献资料主要提供研究背景、研究视角、语料和研究方法，是进入研究课题和形成综述，进而展开原创研究的必由之路。由于二手资料是他人对原创观点的述评，有述评人自己的视角，因而片面处理和错误解读时有发生。因此，对一手资料的仔细研读成为不可或缺的一环。研究的理论框架均产生于一手资料（二手资料的创新部分也是一手资料）。分析资料时，注意力应放在重要观点的整个形成过程，而不仅仅是结论本身。论文写作过程中，问题的发现往往产生于对该过程的关注。
选题过程中，通过对“现刊”和“过刊”的浏览，学生对选题和选题的内容及现状一般都有了一定的了解，论题也初步形成了。但此时的题目还太大，需要缩小。缩小选题的有效方法是通过进一步阅读有针对性的文献，找到与该论题相关的各种信息，从不同的视角着手，逐渐理清相关论题的内在联系，从而找到解决问题的有效办法。为了更好地收集相关信息，做读书卡片便成为论文写作准备中重要的一环。为此，需先明确两点：一是（初步的）论题，二是观察点。论题和观察点都来自对文献的阅读和认真思考：文献资料的章节标题和关键词会向读者提供部分观察点，而认真思索和不断提问可带来更多的观察点。
读书笔记通常记录在长约 15 厘米、宽约 10 厘米的硬纸卡片上，一张卡片往往只记录一项内容。卡片的左上角和右上角分别标注记录主题和文献来源信息，以便日后检索和分类排列。
摘要是用自己的话将文献的要点表述出来，特别适用于论文准备阶段背景文献的阅读记录。
解读是用自己的话将文献内容表述出来，是论文行文中最主要的转述手段。
直接引语是论文行文中表现被引用者说话风格和准确含义的最佳表达手法。
评论笔记的作用是随时记下自己的想法，以免遗忘。
值得一提的是，好的笔记在论文写作时能够顺利地融入自己的论文中。因此，我们建议，尽量少用直接引语式笔记类型，多用其他三种笔记类型。
如果说学士论文的论题是目标，那么，提纲（Outline）则是实现目标的具体步骤，是学士论文写作的“路线图”。
提纲有两种基本格式，即“混合式提纲”和“数字单一式提纲”。前者指的是按层次，由表及里分别使用罗马数字、大写英文字母、阿拉伯数字、小写英文字母、双括号、阿拉伯数字等表示；后者则是按层次，由表及里一律用阿拉伯数字来表示。
一般来说，“混合式提纲”多用于人文学科和社会学科，“数字单一式提纲”则多用于自然学科，这与其明了清晰、极易扩展的特点很有关系。反映在学士论文写作中则是：英美文学或英美文化方面的题目适宜用“混合式提纲”；对于英语语言学、英语教学研究、翻译研究等题目，“数字单一式提纲”更合适、更得体。
一个好的论文提纲应该包含三四个主要部分。主要部分代表一个完整的、典型的段落。各主要部分又可以进一步分为不同的几个次要部分。提纲不必把正文中的“引言”和“结语”两部分反映出来，但要把论文展开的逻辑顺序体现出来。不仅如此，提纲也不宜有太多的主标题，因为太多的主标题往往会使得论文的思路表述混乱。提纲对写作内容的划分应该与即将写就的论文的段落划分或次标题相对应。当然，无论提纲如何划分论文内容，划分出来的各个部分合并在一起要大致相当于一个论题。
需要强调的是，提纲的框架结构可以随着论文写作的深入随时修改，论文定稿时确定下来的提纲和最初拟定的提纲往往大相径庭。
一般说来，学士论文的提纲不宜分得过细，分为四个层级比较妥当。
Ⅰ.（第一层）
A.（第二层）
1.（第三层）
2.（第三层）
B.（第二层）
1.（第三层）
2.（第三层）
a.（第四层）
b.（第四层）
Ⅱ.（第一层）
A.（第二层）
B.（第二层）
1.（第三层）
a.（第四层）
①（第五层）
②（第五层）
Ⅰ. Introduction to Structuralism
A. Structuralism used for literature analysis
B. Semiotics of structuralism
Ⅱ. The Character Circle-Center Structure of The Scarlet Letter
A. The Scarlet Letter ：a tragedy novel
B. The structure relationship in the character sign-system
C. The relationship between the character circle-center structure and the development of the plot
Ⅲ. The Multi-Layer and Sign-Systems of Characters in The Scarlet Letter
A. Hester Prynne
B. Arthur Dimmesdale
C. Roger Chillingworth
D. Little Pearl
Ⅳ. The Functions of the Naming Characters in The Scarlet Letter
A. The Naming Principles
B. The Functions of the Naming Characters
1.（第一层）
1.1（第二层）
1.1.1（第三层）
1.1.1.1（第四层）
2.（第一层）
2.1（第二层）
2.1.1（第三层）
2.1.1.1（第四层）
2.1.1.1.1（第五层）
1. Introduction
1.1 Research Background
1.2 Research Purpose
1.3 Research Significance
2. Literature Review
2.1 Studies of the Novel Version of Normal People
2.2 Studies of the Novel and the TV Series of Normal People
2.3 Adaptation Theories of Novels
2.4 Comments on the Previous Studies
3. Plots Adaptation of the Novel in the TV Series
3.1 The Narrative Sequence
3.2 The Beginning：Marianne and Connell's Encounter
3.3 The Development：Marianne and Connell's Relationship
3.4 The Ending：Marianne and Connell's Separation
4. Characters Adaptation of the Novel in the TV Series
4.1 Denis's Conflicts and Struggles
4.2 Alan's Extreme and Violence
5. Themes Adaptation of the Novel in the TV Series
5.1 Inequality of Social Status
5.2 The Pursuit of a Normal and Healthy Relationship
6. Conclusion
6.1 Richness of Plots in the TV Series
6.2 Reduction of Characters in the TV Series
6.3 Exploration of Themes in the TV Series
6.4 Suggestions for Further Study
需要强调的是，由于词组短语式提纲在学术界用得最为广泛，不妨多用名词性词组、动宾结构、介词＋名词短语等形式来拟定论文提纲，以符合英美人的表达习惯。段落式的陈述性提纲目前已基本不用了，但详尽的段落式提纲有时能够帮助我们培养缜密严谨的逻辑思维，对写作论文初稿有帮助。
开题报告（Research Proposal/Thesis Proposal）旨在向论文指导老师或论文指导小组表明：第一，你有一个好的选题；第二，你有能力完成论文；第三，你有一个切实可行的研究计划。尽管开题报告通常只限于硕士论文和博士论文的写作，但目前，国内许多大学的学士论文也开始推广撰写论文开题报告，因为它不仅能够督促本科毕业生一步一个脚印地去完成整个论文写作，而且能帮助指导老师较早地发现学生论文写作中的问题或困惑，从而便于及时跟进，并给予有针对性的指导。
学士论文开题报告应包含实际写作过程的主要内容，通常要回答“做什么”“为什么要做”以及“怎样做”三个主要问题。
效度（Validity）和信度（Reliability）是论文开题报告最起码的要求。通常情况下，学士论文的开题报告应提供足够的信息，从而让导师或专家小组作出判定：你的论文选题是否有价值，你收集的资料是否全面、权威，你对选题研究现状的了解是否充分，你的研究方法是否切实可行。
开题报告的基本要素大致包括：题名（Title）、引言（Introduction）、文献综述（Literature Review）、研究方法（Method）、结果（Result）、讨论（Discussion）、前期参考文献（Preliminary Bibliography）等。
一般说来，开题报告中的引言往往会围绕以下四个问题来思考：
（1）What is the subject you have discovered?
（2）What methods do you intend to adopt?
（3）Why do you take interest in this subject?
（4）How are the source materials you have read or mean to read related to the subject?
开题报告的引言要涉及研究问题（Research Question）、研究动机（Rationale）、研究假设（Hypothesis）、研究方法（Method）以及主要发现（Findings）等。具体内容包括：研究目的（Purpose）、背景（Context）、动机（Motive）、问题（Issue）、变量（Variables）或现象（Phenomenon）、范围（Delimitation），以及论文中要涉及的主要概念。
开题报告中的研究方法（也称研究视角）是最吸引导师或论文导师组眼球的一个环节，指论文的设计方案（Design）、研究步骤（Procedures）、样本（Sample）和工具（Instruments）等。通常情况下会思考以下三个问题：
（1）How do you plan to do the research?
（2）What methods do you intend to adopt?
（3）What are the procedures you mean to follow?
思考之后，要在开题报告中提供充足的理由，以说明自己的研究方法是可靠的。对于定量研究，研究方法包括研究设计、受试、工具和步骤。尽管此时还没有得出结果，但仍可讨论可能出现的结果及分析方法。
开题报告中的讨论（Discussion）环节也是不可或缺的要素之一，往往会围绕以下四个问题来思考，并形成自己有理有据的论点和论证。
（1）What is the relationship between your anticipated results and the previous achievements of others?
（2）What practical and/or theoretical value do you think your research might have?
（3）What are the limitations of your methods and materials， and the difficulties you may possibly encounter?
（4）How do you plan to overcome these difficulties?
为了方便起见，国内许多大学要求学士论文的开题报告采用表格形式，并把上述这些要素的内容填在表格中（中文或英文）。
学士论文开题报告表格样例
必须指出的是，论文开题报告中应尽量避免出现类似的错误，如研究背景不充分、主要概念界定不清、关键文献有遗漏、重点不突出、论点模棱两可、论证缺乏力度。
Research on the influence of meta-linguistic knowledge on individual differences in foreign language learning has not provided a cohesive picture of the role of language awareness as it relates to readiness for language learning. The limited research literature on this topic has suggested that independently of aptitude for foreign language learning（Carroll and Sapon， 1959; Skehan， 1986; Sasaki， 1991; Alderson， Clapham and Steel， 1997;Robinson， 2002），explicit knowledge about language provides little or no advantage for foreign language learners. Modern language pedagogy in schools， however， continues to be mainly predicated on the assumption that meta-linguistic knowledge is a prerequisite for comprehending and learning the raw data of foreign language input. To date， few empirical studies of the role of meta-linguistic knowledge have shown ambiguous or small effects when individual difference variables such as aptitude are factored in. A handful of quasi experimental studies testing the hypothesis that no meta-linguistic knowledge is needed for successful learning（Krashen and Terrell， 1983; Palmer， 1992），have tended to provide non-conclusive results. A meta-analysis of focus on form research by Norris and Ortega（2002）suggests that there is a slight advantage for some focus on form in instruction. This finding implies that explicit instruction tends to lead to better outcomes than implicit learning requiring induction of form-function correspondences. The research thus far done on the effects of meta-linguistic knowledge has been cross-sectional or quasi-experimental in nature.
Whether or not meta-linguistic knowledge can serve to proper successful long-term language learning remains an unexplored area of applied linguistics research. In the context of TOEIC score gain research， conventional teaching methodologies such as grammar translation still play a fundamental role， even in adult language learning for business purposes. The impact of meta-linguistic knowledge on TOEIC score gain has to date not been examined in detail， and thus motivates this research project.
The proposed research will involve a longitudinal design which will entail following a single cohort of university students during two years of compulsory English as a foreign language learning program. The cohort of 500 students will be enrolled at a large private university in Japan， and will take two courses per week for fifteen weeks over four semesters， for a total of 180 classroom contact hours. The instructional program includes one day of the week focused on reading and writing. The second lesson of the week will focus on listening and speaking development. The students’overall academic level can be described as average for Japanese undergraduates. The students will take TOEIC as a pretest prior to the start of instruction in their first year in the program. After the first year， or second semester of the program， all students will take a second TOEIC test. At the end of the fourth semester， a final TOEIC test will be administered to the cohort of 500 students.
Prior to the start of the instructional program， all students will be given a 60 item meta linguistic ability test developed by the researchers. The meta-linguistic ability test will be comprised of items designed to measure abstract knowledge of English phonetics and phonology， syntactic typology， and grammatical terminology. This test will be administered in Japanese and is designed to assess students’learning of meta-linguistic knowledge during six years of compulsory foreign language learning in junior and senior high school. The sixty item test will be checked for internal consistency（Cronbach Alpha Method），and will be used to predict individual differences in gaining scores on TOEIC.
The meta-linguistic knowledge test and the TOEIC pretest will be administered in April of the first academic year to the 500 students. The second and third TOEIC tests will provide longitudinal growth data for analysis of initial individual differences in ability at the outset of instruction， and with changes in learning curves. The analysis approach to be used will involve latent growth curve model. This analysis method has become an increasingly familiar method of longitudinal analysis in a number of social science disciplines（Curran and Bollen， 2001; Duncan， et al.，1999; Hox， 2002; McArdle and Bell， 2000; Muthen， et al.，2003; Singer and Willett， 2003）. When designed as a covariance structure model，individual and group change trajectories can be modeled and tested for linear and non-linear trends. Change trajectories can act as covariates of other changes such as proficiency growth， or as outcomes influenced by other static cross-sectional variables of interest（Stoel，van den Wittenboer and Hox， 2004）.
In the proposed study， learners’meta-linguistic knowledge state prior to the onset of instruction will serve as a static covariate which will be tested for its direct covariance with initial individual differences in proficiency and with changes in growth curves measured by the two post-tests. In addition， a survey of extra curricular contact will be administered twice during the instructional period. It will contain questions about language contact outside of the university context. If need be， extra curricular contact variables may be employed as auxiliary covariates in the latent growth curve analysis. The timeline for this project will start in April of the next academic year and final data collection will occur approximately 22 months later. The analysis and final report will be made available in the following spring.
As our research goal is to test the long-term influence of meta-linguistic knowledge on subsequent language learning， we will test the hypothesis that there is non-random covariance between meta-linguistic knowledge and pre-instruction individual differences in proficiency as measured by TOEIC. A second and more important hypothesis we will test is whether meta-linguistic knowledge co-varies with growth in proficiency as measured by the changes in trajectories from the first TOEIC score to the second and third scores. For these analysis， separate analysis for reading and listening will be undertaken. If significant paths can be found between meta-linguistic knowledge developed in secondary education and subsequent language learning growth occurring in college independently of any extra curricular covariates， there may be evidence to justify form-focused pedagogy. Our hypothesis thus addresses the issue of curriculum design. Language education policies usually assume that the outcomes of instruction will result in foreign language proficiency growth. By testing the long-term influence of meta-linguistic knowledge on TOEIC gain scores， the proposed research will address an issue of both theoretical and practical importance.
Alderson， C.，Clapham， C. and Steel， D.（1997）. Meta-Linguistic Knowledge， Language Aptitude， and Language Proficiency. Language Teaching Research ，1：121-293.
Carroll， J. B. and Sapon， S.（1959）. The Modern Language Aptitude Test . New York：The Psychological Corporation.
Curran， P.and Bollen， K.（2001）.“The Best of Both Worlds：Combining Autoregressive and Latent Curve Models”in L. Collins and A. Sayer（Eds.）. New Methods for the Analysis of Change . Washington D. C.：American Psychological Association.
Duncan， S.，Strycker， Alpert， A.（1999）. An Introduction to Latent Variable Growth Curve Modeling . Mahwah， N. J.：Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Hox， J.（2002）. Multilevel Analysis . Mahwah， N. J.：Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Krashen，S.andTerrell，T.（1983）. The Natural Approach Language Acquisition in the Classroom . Oxford：Pergamon.
McArdle， J. and Bell， R.（2000）.“An Introduction to Latent Growth Curve Modeling for Developmental Data Analysis”in. T. Little， K. Schnabel and J. Baumert.（Eds.）. Modeling Longitudinal and Multilevel Data . Mahwah， N. J.：Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Muthen， B.，Khoo， S. T.，Francis， D. and Boscardin， C.（2003）.“Analysis of Reading Skills Development from Kindergarten Through First Grade：An Application of Growth Mixture Modeling to Sequential Processes”in S. Reise， and N. Duan（Eds.）. Multilevel Modeling - Methodological Advances ， Issues ， and Applications . Mahwah，N.J.：Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Palmer， A.（1992）.“Issues in Evaluating Input-Based Language Teaching Programs”in J. C. Alderson and A. Berretta（Eds.）. Second Language Program Evaluation .Cambridge：Cambridge University Press.
Robinson，P.（Ed.）（2002）. Individual Differences in Instructed Second Language Acquisition . Amsterdam：John Benjamins.
Singer， J. and Willett， J.（2003）. Applied Longitudinal Data Analysis . New York：Oxford University Press.
Skehan， P.（1986）. The Role of Foreign Language Aptitude in a Model of School Learning. Language Testing ， 3：188-221.
Stoel， R. D.，van den Wittenboer， G. and Hox， J.（2004）. Including Time-Invariant Covariates in the Latent Growth Curve Model. Structural Equation Modeling ， 11（2）：155-167.
文献综述（Literature Review）是学士论文写作前必不可少的重要环节。硕士、博士论文甚至把文献综述作为一个章节来写，文献综述在某种程度上为全文搭建了良好的研究平台。学士论文的文献综述旨在表明论文作者了解研究背景、熟悉问题、有评估和综合文献的初步能力，运用或提出一些基本的理论框架。
如何写文献综述？Wiersma在其 Research Methods in Education （1989）一书中提出的以下七点很有启发性：
（1）挑选出与课题密切相关的研究成果。
（2）归整糅合这些研究结果以凸显其明显的相关性。切忌将各自之间毫无联系的每项研究摘要分段列出。
（3）你的文献综述应该让人看后感到该领域的研究尚不完整，有待扩展。既有的研究可以为你目前的研究作铺垫。
（4）一方面，要给参考文献列出来源；另一方面，不宜把评述写成一串引语。
（5）不可把文献按时间顺序排列，而应按其与课题的相关性组成一个有机的整体。
（6）告诉读者，哪些文献与你目前的研究密切相关，哪些文献相关性较差。
（7）结尾时要略加一些概括与评论，起到画龙点睛的作用。
由此可见，文献综述强调全面性（不可漏掉重要研究成果）、相关性（不可生拉硬扯地去提及一些有名的研究）、批判性（Critical）。当然，批判性可能是文献综述写作中最为困难的，尤其是对于第一次从事真正意义上的论文写作的本科毕业生来说，能对现有文献提出自己的看法，实为不易。毫无疑问，具有一定程度的批判性是学士论文吸引导师的前提所在。批评他人文献的能力无非来自大量的文献阅读和勤于思考的习惯。
下面这篇文献综述，主要梳理并评价了功能语言学理论对翻译文本的指导作用，写作时可以从中研习模仿。
Bell（1991）draws resources from the Systemic Functional Linguistics approach in his studies on translation and translating. He points out that the study of the three Metafunctions is“central to any understanding of translation”（Bell， 1991：120）. While examining the Textual Metafunction， he states that it is the role of the Textual Function to organize discourse meaning by placing both cognitive and interactional meaning in context of language use， without which the speaker would not be able to produce anything but a random collection of sentences. As an illustration， he compares the Theme options of several English clauses with those in their French translations， and concludes that“It is revealing how even two closely related languages should still diverge in their choices of options in Theme”（Bell， 1991：158）.
Baker（1992），on the other hand， integrates the Systemic Functional Linguistics approach into her translation studies and proposes a translation model， which works at different levels of equivalence. Through the discussion on the equivalence at the Textual level， she concludes that translators“must not underestimate the cumulative effect of thematic choices”in the translation of a text， but should“ensure that whatever elements you put in initial-clause position in your target text or in a given part of your target text add up to something that can be understood as a method of development and that can provide a point of orientation for that part of the text”（Baker， 1992：129）. She also discusses the problem in the Thematic analysis of Chinese clauses which is due to the linguistic differences between the Chinese language and the English language， the former of which is generally regarded as topic-prominent language while the latter a subject-prominent language.
Hatim and Mason（1990），in a similar line， analyses different types of texts and their translations from a communicative perspective. A major part of their analysis was based on Halliday's theory of language， including the idea of Textual Function. In discussing the cohesion and coherence issue in translation， they argue that“the ways in which the underlying coherence is reflected on the surface of text—the cohesion， or sequential connectivity of surface elements—are more likely to be language-specific or text-specific”（Hatim and Mason， 1990：195）.