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Ⅰ. Fill in the blanks.
1 In the understanding of communicative language teaching, three principles have been generally agreed upon, namely, _____ principle, _____ principle, and _____ principle.
【答案】 communication, task, meaningfulness
【解析】 人们对交际教学法的理解遵循三个原则，即交际原则、任务原则、意义原则。
2 _____ can provide a context for grammar teaching and form-focused activities.
【答案】 TBL
【解析】 任务教学法可以为语法教学和以（语言）形式为主的活动提供一个情境。
3 Some of the popular tasks types in the English classroom include: _____, simulations, _____, listening to authentic material, discussions, decision-making, and _____.
【答案】 role-plays, problem-solving, information gaps
【解析】 在英语课堂中比较受欢迎的任务类型包括角色扮演、模拟场景、解决问题、听真实语言材料、讨论、做决定、信息差、辩论、拼读活动等。
4 Hymes’s theory leads to nation/function-based syllabuses, and a step further, ______ syllabuses. [中山大学2005研]
【答案】 communicative
【解析】 海姆斯提出的交际教学大纲以功能—意念大纲为基础，它教授表达和理解不同语言功能时所需要的语言，并且强调交际的过程。
5 ______ competence refers to one’s ability to create coherent written text or conversation and the ability to understand them. [安徽师大2019研]
【答案】 Discourse
【解析】 本题考查的是语篇能力的定义。语篇能力指的是能做出连贯完整的文章，造出适当的话语并理解它们的能力。
Ⅱ. Multiple Choice
1 Which of the following is NOT the definition of a task in Task-based Language Teaching?
A. A piece of classroom work in which learners’ attention is principally focused on both meaning and form.
B. An activity where the target language is used by the learner for a communicative purpose.
C. A range of workplans which have the overall purpose of facilitating language learning.
D. An activity which requires learners to arrive at an outcome.
【答案】 A
【解析】 任务教学法中的任务有多种定义。Nunan认为，任务是一项课堂作业（a piece of classroom work），要求学习者把注意力放在意义（meaning）而不是语言形式（form）上，运用目的语理解、表达和交际。Willis认为，学习者在任务中运用目的语进行交际以达到预期结果。Breen认为，任务是为了学习语言而制定的一系列行动计划。Prabhu认为，任务是一项活动，要求学习者实现一定的结果。因此，本题正确答案为A。
2 Which of the following is Littlewood’s classification of communicative activities?
A. Functional communicative activities and grammatical activities.
B. Functional communicative activities and social interaction activities.
C. Grammatical activities and social interaction activities.
D. Grammatical activities, functional communicative activities and social interaction activities.
【答案】 B
【解析】 Littlewood将交际活动分为两类：功能交际活动和社会交往活动。因此，本题正确答案为B。
Ⅲ. True or False
1 One language form may express a number of communicative functions and one communicative function can also be expressed by a variety of language forms.
【答案】 T
【解析】 一种语言形式也许可以表达多个交际功能，而一种交际功能也可以由不同的语言形式来表达。
2 Communicative courses focus on meaning, not form.
【答案】 F
【解析】 交际课程既重视意义，也注重形式。
3 Communicative Language Teaching has replaced the previous approaches or methodologies.
【答案】 F
【解析】 交际教学法并没有取代以前的教学方法，而是对原来的教学方法进行了扩展。
4 Task-based Language Teaching has stressed the importance to combine form-focused teaching with communication-focused teaching.
【答案】 T
【解析】 任务教学法强调结合以（语言）形式为主的教学和以交际为主的教学的重要性。
5 Focus on form refers to the practice of explicitly drawing students’ attention to linguistic features with the context of meaning-focused activities.
【答案】 T
【解析】 形式为主（的教学法）是指在以意义为主的活动的情境中，明显将学生的注意力吸引到语言特征上。
6 Successful instructional sequences should be built on a pre-task, task and follow-up cycle.
【答案】 T
【解析】 成功的教学顺序应该建立在任务前、任务中、任务后的循环的基础上。
7 In TBLT, task is the same as exercises.
【答案】 F
【解析】 在任务教学法中，任务和练习是两个不同的概念。
8 Cognitive style is a particular way in which a learner tries to learn something. In second or foreign language learning, different learners may prefer different solutions to learning problems. [温州大学2022研]
【答案】 T
【解析】 认知风格是指学习者尝试学习某物的一种特定方式。在第二语言或外语学习中，不同的学习者可能会倾向于采用不同的方法来解决学习中的问题。
Ⅳ. Explain the following terms.
1 Discourse competence
【答案】
In Canale and Swain’s words(1980), discourse competence refers to one’s ability to create coherent written text or conversation and the ability to understand them. In other words, it is related to one’s ability to express or to understand a topic logically and coherently by effectively employing or comprehending the cohesive markers used in the discourse.
2 Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)
【答案】
Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) is an instructional approach designed to bridge the gap between classroom language teaching and real-life language use. Its primary objective is to enhance students’ communicative proficiency by engaging them in a variety of authentic and interactive communicative activities. CLT assumes that language learning occurs through the process of using language for meaningful purposes, integrating listening, speaking, reading, and writing skills. Assessment in CLT focuses on learners’ ability to communicate effectively in real-life situations.
3 Task-based Language Teaching (TBLT) [首都师大2018研]
【答案】
Task-based Language Teaching (TBLT) is an advanced form of Communicative Language Teaching that emphasizes real-life language use in the classroom. It integrates form-focused and communication-focused instruction, often following task-based activities with form-focused exercises. TBLT is a meaning-centered approach, encouraging learners to use the language extensively, even if initially inaccurately, to facilitate genuine communication in the classroom.
4 PPP model [温州大学2017研]
【答案】
PPP model refers to the Presentation, Practice and Production model of teaching. In a typical PPP lesson, teachers first introduce the new language items according to the context, and then organize controlled practice such as drilling, repetition, dialogue reading, etc.
5 Silent Way [温州大学2022研]
【答案】
Silent Way refers to a teaching method where the teacher remains relatively silent during the lesson, using non-verbal means such as actions, pictures, and colored sticks to facilitate language learning. The method encourages students to actively use the language and rely on each other for support.
6 Cognitive Style [首都师大2018研]
【答案】
Cognitive style or “thinking style” is a concept used in cognitive psychology to describe the way individuals think, perceive and remember information. Messick calls them “habitual modes of information processing”. In the language-learning field, some of the most interesting is field independence. That is some individual seem more able than others to extract things from the context in which they are met, and to see them as separate entities. People who can do this easily are said to be ‘field independent’, while those who don’t are ‘field dependent’.
Ⅴ. Essay questions
1 What is communicative competence? How should we develop it in our foreign language learning? [四川大学2009研；温州大学2022研]
【答案】
Communicative competence is what a learner knows about how a language is used in particular situations for effective and appropriate communication. Communicative competence includes knowledge of the grammar and vocabulary, knowledge of rules of speaking, knowledge of how to use and respond to different types of speech acts and social conventions, and knowledge of how to use language appropriately.
In order to develop communicative competence in our foreign language learning, language learners are encouraged to deal with accomplishing actions, which are believed to help them acquire the target language. Two types of tasks are usually required to be performed by the learners: real-world tasks and pedagogical tasks. For example, students may be asked to work or discuss in groups.
Besides, teachers can adopt the communicative syllabus which aims at the learner’s communicative competence. It teaches the language needed to express and understand different kinds of functions, and emphasizes the process of communication.
2 Saussure puts forward the concept of langue and parole, and Chomsky puts forward the concept of competence and performance. Please dwell upon the differences and similarities, if any, of the two pairs: langue and parole vs. competence and performance. [北京交通大学2007研]
【答案】
According to F. de Saussure, langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community; while parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use.
For Chomsky, a fundamental distinction between linguistic competence and performance should be made. A language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called linguistic competence. And performance refers to the actual use of language in concrete situations. In light with this, competence enables a speaker to produce and understand an indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities. A speaker’s competence is stable but his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors, and thus would involve imperfections such as slips of tongue, false starts, unnecessary pauses, and so on. Thus, the point is that a speaker’s performance does not always match his competence.
Saussure’s distinction is somewhat similar with Chomsky’s in the sense that they both refer to the constant factor which underlies the utterances that constitute parole/performance. However, their difference is quite obvious. Saussure’s language is a social product, a set of conventions for a speech community. Chomsky regards competence as a property of the mind of each individual. Saussure looks at language more from a sociological point of view while Chomsky looks at it more from a psychological point of view.
3 What are the characteristics of communicative language teaching? [宁波大学2019研]
【答案】
There are many distinctive characteristics of communicative language teaching, as follows:
(1) Focus on Communication: The target linguistic system is best learned through the process of attempting to communicate. CLT emphasizes the use of language in meaningful, real-life contexts, where learners engage in communicative activities to develop their language skills.
(2) Recognition of Linguistic Variation: Linguistic variation, including regional dialects, social dialects, and styles of speech, is a central concept in CLT materials and methodology. This recognition encourages learners to understand and appreciate the diversity of language use in different contexts.
(3) Content-Driven Sequencing: The sequence of language teaching is determined by considerations of content, function, or meaning that maintain learners' interest and relevance. CLT prioritizes teaching language that is useful and relevant to learners' needs and goals.
(4) Learner-Centered Approach: Teachers adopt a supportive role, helping learners in any way that motivates them to work with the language. This includes providing opportunities for learners to take initiative, make choices, and take responsibility for their learning.
(5) Emphasis on Fluency and Acceptability: Fluency and acceptable language use are the primary goals of CLT. Accuracy is judged not in the abstract but in context, with a focus on communicative effectiveness rather than grammatical perfection.
(6) Interactive Learning: Students are expected to interact with other people, either in person through pair and group work, or through written communication. CLT encourages learners to engage in collaborative and interactive learning activities that promote language use and development.
(7) Integration of Skills: CLT integrates the four language skills (listening, speaking, reading, and writing) into a cohesive whole, rather than treating them as separate entities. This holistic approach supports learners in developing their language abilities in a balanced and integrated way.
(8) Authentic Materials: The use of authentic materials, such as real-life dialogues, newspaper articles, and videos, is a key feature of CLT. These materials provide learners with access to real-world language use and help them develop their language skills in meaningful contexts.
(9) Assessment for Learning: CLT emphasizes assessment for learning, where assessment is used to inform teaching and learning rather than simply to evaluate learners' performance. This approach encourages learners to reflect on their progress, set goals, and take ownership of their learning.
(10) Flexibility and Adaptability: CLT is characterized by its flexibility and adaptability. Teachers are encouraged to adapt their teaching methods and materials to meet the needs and interests of their learners, as well as to respond to learners' progress and feedback.
(11) Promotion of Cultural Awareness: CLT promotes cultural awareness and understanding by encouraging learners to explore and engage with the cultures associated with the languages they are learning. This helps learners develop a deeper understanding of the language and its social and cultural context.
(12) Emphasis on Learner Autonomy: CLT encourages learners to develop autonomy in their language learning, enabling them to take control of their learning process, set their own goals, and seek out opportunities for language practice and development.
By incorporating these characteristics, CLT provides a comprehensive and effective framework for language teaching that supports learners in developing their language skills in meaningful and relevant contexts.