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本章要点：
1 Roles that methods play in language teaching
方法在语言教学中扮演的角色
2 The differences between language used in real life and language taught in the classroom
日常生活语言与课堂语言的不同
3 Definition of communicative competence and its five components
交际能力的定义和它的五个组成部分
4 Principles of Communicative Language Teaching
交际语言教学的原则
5 CLT and the teaching of language skills
交际语言教学与语言能力教学
6 Main features of communicative activities
交际活动的主要特点
7 Task-based Language Teaching
任务型语言教学
8 Four components of a task
任务的四个部分
9 PPP and Task-based Language Teaching
新授、练习和巩固模式与任务型语言教学
10 The steps to design tasks
设计任务的步骤
11 The fit of CLT and TBLT in the Chinese context
交际语言教学与任务型语言教学在中文语境的契合
本章考点：
方法在语言教学中扮演的角色；语言在日常生活中的使用与传统教学法；日常生活语言与课堂语言的不同；交际能力的定义和它的五个组成部分；交际语言教学的原则；交际语言教学与语言能力教学；交际活动的主要特点；任务型语言教学；任务的四个部分；新授、练习和巩固模式与任务型语言教学的不同；设计任务的步骤；交际语言教学与任务型语言教学在中文语境的契合
本章内容索引：
Ⅰ. What roles do methods play in language teaching?
1 The method era
2 The anti-media era
3 The post method era
4 A framework for understanding language teaching methods
Ⅱ. What do we know about the communicative language teaching?
1 Language use in real life vs. traditional pedagogy
2 What is communicative competence?
3 Implications for teaching and learning
4 Principles of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)
5 CLT and the teaching of language skills
6 Main features of communicative activities
Ⅲ. What do we know about task-based language teaching?
1 What is task-based language teaching?
2 What is a task?
3 What components should a task have?
4 PPP and task-based language teaching
5 How is a task designed?
Ⅳ. The fit of CLT and TBLT in the Chinese context
1 Controversies and debates about CLT
2 Some potential problems of TBLT
Ⅴ. Conclusion
Ⅰ. What roles do methods play in language teaching?（方法在语言教学中扮演的角色）
How can we learn English in effective ways is the major concern in the field of language learning. And the whole process of the development of language teaching methods can be divided into three interrelated stages: The method era, the anti-method era, and the post-method era.
如何有效地学习英语是语言学习领域的主要关注点。语言教学方法发展的全过程可分为三个相互关联的阶段：方法时代、反方法时代和后方法时代。
1 The method era（方法时代）
(1) Before the appearance of CLT（交际语言教学出现之前）
From the middle of the 19th century to the late 20th century, there were nine main language teaching approaches:
①The Grammar Translation Method
②The Audio-lingual Method
③The Direct Method
④Total Physical Response
⑤Situational Language Teaching
⑥The Silent Way
⑦Community Language Learning
⑧The Natural Approach
⑨Suggestopedia
Among all the above methods, the audio-lingual method is the most popular and widely used one, that is because most unprofessional teachers or learners can learn English just in the way of presentation, practice repetition and drills.
从19世纪中叶到20世纪末，有九种主要的语言教学方法：
①语法翻译法
②视听法
③直接法
④全身反应法
⑤情景教学法
⑥沉默法
⑦社团语言学习法
⑧自然教学法
⑨暗示教学法
以上方法中，视听法是最受欢迎和使用最广泛的，这是因为大多数非专业教师或学习者可以通过演示、练习重复和练习的方式学习英语。
(2) After the appearance of CLT（交际语言教学出现之后）
In the 1970s, Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) came along. This marked a new era of language teaching. Here are some main methods that emerged then, and some of them are still used today:
①Content-based Instruction and Content and Language Integrated Learning (CBI)
②The Whole Language Approach
③Competency-based Language Teaching (CBLT)
④Task-based Language Teaching (TBLT)
⑤Text-based Instruction
⑥The Lexical Approach
⑦Project-based Learning
⑧Cooperative Language Learning
20世纪70年代，交际语言教学（CLT）应运而生。这标志着语言教学的新时代。以下是当时出现的一些主要方法，其中一些至今仍在使用：
①内容型教学法
②全语言法
③能力导向型教学法
④任务型教学法
⑤文本教学法
⑥词汇法
⑦项目式学习
⑧合作语言学习
2 The anti-method era（反方法时代）
From 1980s and 1990s, it is acknowledged that the most effective method didn’t mean the most practical method. Thus, some teachers chose to combine different methods, techniques and strategies according to the students’ need, which was still a total failure.
从20世纪80年代到90年代，人们普遍认为，最有效的方法并不意味着最实用的方法。因此，一些教师选择根据学生的需要结合不同的方法、技巧和策略，这仍然是一个彻底的失败。
3 The post-method era（后方法时代）
(1) The differences between “an alternative to method” and “an alternative method”（“方法的替代”和“可能的方法”之间的区别）
“An alternative to method” means going beyond the conventional way of doing something and exploring different solutions to a problem. It implies that instead of sticking to a specific method, one can consider other options to achieve the desired results.
“An alternative method” simply refers to another method that is different from the current method or methods being used. It suggests that people will continue searching for a more efficient or effective way to solve the problem.
“方法的替代”意味着超越传统的做事方式，探索问题的不同解决方案。这意味着，与其坚持一种特定的方法，不如考虑其他选择来实现预期的结果。
“可能的方法”只是指与当前使用的方法不同的另一种方法。这表明人们将继续寻找更高效或更有效的方法来解决这个问题。
(2) The reason to search for “an alternative to method” （研究“方法的替代”的原因）
Centered-produced methods are used on the basis that all the teachers have the same teaching targets and aims, which is an idealized concept.
In fact, the process of language learning and teaching is a dynamic process. None of the existent methods can foresee all the situations and offer practical suggestions.
Therefore, we should not continue to search or change methods, but to find new methods to solve problems, which marked the arrival of post-method era.
中心化生产方法是在所有教师都有相同的教学目标和目的的基础上使用的，这是一个理想化的概念。
事实上，语言学习和教学的过程是一个动态的过程。现有的方法都不能预见所有情况并提供切实可行的建议。
因此，我们不应该继续寻找或改变方法，而应该找到新的方法来解决问题，这标志着后方法时代的到来。
(3) A post-method pedagogy（后方法的教学法）
①A pedagogy of particularity
A pedagogy of particularity requires teachers accumulate experience, observe situations and make reasonable judgements. The process includes observation, reelection and action.
②A pedagogy of practicality
A pedagogy of practicality believes that teachers are the main participants of developing theories. That is to say, teachers should develop the necessary knowledge and skills, and finally form their own practical theories.
③A pedagogy of possibility
A pedagogy of possibility considers that effective learning is shaped not only by the teachers’ experience and teaching methods, but also by the social, economic and cultural environment.
①特殊的教学法
特殊的教学法要求教师积累经验，观察情况，做出合理的判断。这个过程包括观察、反思和行动。
②实用的教学法
实践教学法认为，教师是发展理论的主要参与者。也就是说，教师应该发展必要的知识和技能，最终形成自己的实践理论。
③可能的教学法
可能性教学法认为，有效的学习不仅取决于教师的经验和教学方法，还取决于社会、经济和文化环境。
4 A framework for understanding language teaching methods（理解语言教学方法的框架）
(1) Approach（方法）
It determines what teachers do with learners in the classroom. It includes the assumptions, beliefs and theories about the nature of language and the nature of language learning.
它决定了教师在课堂上如何对待学习者。它包括关于语言本质和语言学习本质的假设、信念和理论。
(2) Design（设计）
It specifies the relationship of theories of language and learning to both the form and function of instructional materials and activities in instructional settings.
它规定了语言和学习理论与教学环境中教学材料和活动的形式和功能的关系。
(3) Procedure（程序）
It comprises the classroom techniques and practices which are consequences of particular approaches and designs.
它包括课堂技术和实践，这些技术和实践是特定方法和设计的结果。
Ⅱ. What do we know about the communicative language teaching?（我们对于交际语言教学了解多少）
1 Language use in real life vs. traditional pedagogy（语言在日常生活中的使用与传统教学法）
【考点：语言在日常生活中的使用与传统教学法；日常生活语言与课堂语言的不同】
The ultimate purpose of foreign language teaching is to encourage students to use the foreign language in work or life when necessary. Therefore, teachers should teach the kind of language used in real world rather than all kinds of language; and teachers should teach language in the manner it is used in the real life.
The differences between language used in real life and language taught in the classroom:
①Language used in real life is to achieve certain communicative functions. e.g. to give orders, to exchange information, or to express thanks, etc.; Language teaching in traditional classroom focus on the mastery of language forms rather than the development of communicative proficiency.
②In real life, we use all language skills, including listening, reading, speaking and writing. Traditional pedagogy tends to practice one or two specific language skills and neglect the others for various reasons.
③Language in real life always closely links language to its context. But language taught in traditional classroom tends to be context-independent.
外语教学的最终目的是促使学生在生活和工作中的必要场合运用外语。因此教师应该教能用到的语言，而不是所有的语言；而且教师应该按语言在现实世界中所使用的方式来教。
日常生活语言与课堂语言的不同：
①日常语言用来执行交际功能，比如下达命令、交流信息或致谢。传统的课堂语言更注重掌握语言形式而非培养交际能力。
②在日常语言中，人们会使用所有的语言能力，包括听、读类的接受能力和说、写之类的产出能力。由于种种原因，课堂语言只注重一两种能力而忽视其他的技能。
③日常语言总是用于某个情境之中的语言，而传统的教学法倾向于把语言与其语言环境分离开来。
2 What is communicative competence?（什么是交际能力）
【考点：交际能力的定义和五个组成部分】
(1) Definition（定义）
It not only focuses on knowledge about the language and language skills, but more importantly, on the ability to use the language appropriately in specific communicative situations.
交际能力既包括语言知识能力和语言技能，也包括如何在特定的交际环境中恰当地使用语言的能力。
(2) Five components of communicative competence (Hedge 2000)（交际能力的五个组成部分）
They include linguistic competence, pragmatic competence, discourse competence, strategic competence, and fluency.
①Linguistic competence
It is concerned with knowledge of the language itself, its form and meaning.
②Pragmatic competence
It refers to the appropriate use of the language in social context. In other words, the choice of the vocabulary and structure depends on the situations, the relative status of the speakers, and their relationships.
③Discourse competence
It refers to one’s ability to create coherent written text or conversation and the ability to understand them.
④Strategic competence
Strategic competence is similar to communication strategies. It refers to strategies employed in communication breakdown due to lack of resources.
⑤Fluency
It means one’s ability to ‘link units of speech together with facility and without strain or inappropriate slowness or undue hesitation’.
即语言能力、语用能力、语篇能力、策略能力以及流利程度。
①语言能力
语言能力指的是会使用语言知识的能力，包括形式与意义。
②语用能力
在社会环境中恰当使用语言的能力。根据相关情境、谈话者的社会地位以及人际关系来选择相应的词汇与结构。
③话语能力/语篇能力
能作出连贯完整的文章，造出适当的话语并理解它们的能力。
④策略能力
与交际策略相似，指的是当缺乏足够的语言知识造成交流中断时运用策略解决问题的能力。
⑤流利
将语言各单元熟练连接起来，没有压力、不该有的迟缓或者过多迟疑。
(3) Communicative competence and linguistic competence（交际能力和语言能力）
The term communicative competence is often discussed in contrast to Chomsky’s term linguistic competence, which refers to an ideal speaker-listener's internalized knowledge of language. For example, the system of mastered rules and the ability to understand and produce a vast number of sentences.
Communicative competence is understood as the ability not only to be able to form grammatically correct sentences by applying the grammatical rules of the language but also to know when, where and with whom to use these sentences.
交际能力通常和乔姆斯基提出的语言能力形成对比。语言能力是指一个理想的说话人或听话人所拥有的内在化的语言知识。如掌握的语法规则以及理解和产出语言的能力。交际能力指的是不仅能使用语法规则来组成语法正确的句子，而且知道何时何地向何人使用这些句子的能力。
3 Implications for teaching and learning（对教与学的启示）
Teaching must enable learners to grasp the five components of communicative competence, but not just the linguistics competence.
教学要能使学生掌握上述五种交流能力，而不能只会一种语言能力。
4 Principles of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)（交际语言教学的原则）
【考点：交际语言教学的原则】
(1) Principles（原则）
①Communication principle
Activities that involve real communication promote learning.
②Task principle
Activities in which language is used for carrying out meaningful tasks promote learning.
③Meaningfulness principle
Language that is meaningful to the learner supports the learning process.
①交际原则
真实的交流活动促进学习。
②任务原则
语言被用来执行有意义的任务。
③意义原则
对学习者有意义的语言促进学习进程。
(2) Weak and strong versions of CLT (Howatt,1984)（交际语言教学的两种版本）
①Weak version（弱版本）
Learners first acquire language forms and functions and then cultivate the ability to use them in communication.
学习者先习得语言结构，然后学习怎样用于交际。
②Strong version（强版本）
It claims that learners acquire language in the process of communication.
它认为学习者在交际中习得语言。
5 CLT and the teaching of language skills（交际语言教学与语言能力教学）
【考点：交际语言教学与语言能力教学】
Communicative competence in language teaching practice refers to develop learners’ language skills including listening, speaking, reading and writing.
Listening and speaking skills need to be redefined in the real communicative situations. In other words, students should have the opportunity to listen to and produce what is meaningful, authentic, unpredictable, and creative if possible.
Listening is not only complementary to speaking, but an independent skill with its own objectives.
In CLT, the purpose of reading is to extract meaning or information and the acquisition of grammar and vocabulary is a supplement to such a process. In CLT, students use different skills such as skimming and scanning according to different reading purposes.
CLT has not replaced the previous methodologies. It has only expanded the areas: to incorporate functions into language content, to regard learning process as cognitive style and information processing and to view product as different language skills.
在语言教学实践中培养交际能力就是要培养学习者听说读写的能力。
在真实的交际中，听力技能和口语技能需要重新定义，也就是说，如果可以的话，学生应该有机会听到并说出有意义的、真实的、不可预测的和创造性的话语。
听不仅与说相辅相成，也是一种独立的技能。
在交际语言教学中，阅读的作用是提取意义或信息，语法和词汇的学习是为阅读做准备的。在交际语言教学中，阅读目的不同，学生使用的阅读技巧也不同，比如有略读、浏览。
交际语言教学没有取代之前的教学方法。它只是将语言内容与功能结合起来，将学习过程理解为认知风格和信息加工过程，将语言产出分为不同的语言技能。
6 Main features of communicative activities（交际活动的主要特点）
【考点：交际活动的主要特点】
Six criteria for evaluating how communicative classroom activities are:
评估课堂活动交际程度的六个标准为：
(1) Communicative purpose（交际目的）
The activity must encourage students to perform a real communicative purpose rather than just practice language itself. There must be some kind of ‘information gap’ need to be addressed by students in communication.
活动要完成交际目的，而不只是练习语言。在交际的过程中学生之间要有信息差。
(2) Communicative desire（交际愿望）
The activity must stimulate students’ desire to communicate.
活动必须激发学生的交际愿望。
(3) Content, not form（注重内容，非形式）
The activity must guide students to concentrate on what they are saying rather than how they say it.
活动必须引导学生要注意表达的内容，而不是表达的方式。
(4) Variety of language（语言的多样性）
The activity must encourage students to use various language, not just one specific language form.
活动必须让学生使用各种语言形式，而不是一种。
(5) No teacher intervention（无老师干预）
The activity must be completed by the students themselves rather than with the teacher.
学生自己活动，教师不干预。
(6) No materials control（无规定材料）
The activity should not control what language material the students use.
活动不宜规定学生使用什么语言素材。
Ⅲ. What do we know about task-based language teaching? (TBLT) （任务型教学）
【考点：任务型语言教学的定义；任务的四个部分】
1 What is task-based language teaching?（什么是任务型教学）
Task-based Language Teaching is widely applied in English language teaching nowadays.
Task-based Language Teaching is a further development of Communicative Language Teaching which emphasises the use of tasks as the primary unit in syllabus design and in classroom teaching. In the class, teachers will provide as many opportunities as possible to create genuine situations and lead learners to communicate.
任务型教学现在广泛应用于英语教学。
它是交际法的一种新的形态，是交际法的发展。任务型教学强调通过围绕任务而展开教学活动。在课堂上，教师将提供尽可能多的机会来创造真实的情境，并引导学习者进行交流。
2 What is a task? （什么是任务）
Tasks in task-based instruction are particularly defined so as to be differentiated from those commonly referred to as tasks. But different people can hold different definitions of the term task.
Willis & Willis (2007) propose six questions to determine the task-likeness of an activity, focusing on engagement, meaning, outcome, success criteria, priority of completion, and relevance to real-world activities.
任务教学对任务有着明确定义以区别于一般意义上的任务。但对不同的人来说，任务的意思也不尽相同。
Willis和Willis（2007）提出了六个问题，用于确定一项活动的任务性质，这些问题聚焦于参与度、意义、结果、成功标准、完成的优先级以及与现实活动的相关性。
3 What components should a task have?（任务具备的组成部分）
(1) A purpose（目的）
Ensures students have a clear reason for engaging in the task.
确保学生有明确的原因参与任务。
(2) A context（语境）
Can be real, simulated, or imaginary and involves sociolinguistic factors such as location, participants' relationships, time, and other critical elements.
可以是真实的、模拟的或想象的，并涉及社会语言学因素，如地点、参与者关系、时间和其他关键要素。
(3) A process（过程）
Involves students using learning strategies like problem-solving, reasoning, inquiring, conceptualizing, and communicating.
涉及学生使用学习策略，如解决问题、推理、询问、概念化和沟通。
(4) A product（输出）
Results in some form of outcome, which can be visible (e.g., a written plan, play, letter) or invisible (e.g., enjoying a story, learning about a country).
产生某种形式的结果，可以是可见的（如书面计划、剧本、信件）或不可见的（如享受一个故事、了解一个国家）。
4 PPP and task-based language teaching（PPP教学以及任务型语言教学）
【考点：PPP教学的定义以及与任务型语言教学的不同】
(1) Presentation, Practice and Production (PPP)（新授，练习和巩固）
①Presentation: introduce new vocabulary and grammatical structures.
②Practice: exercises, dialogue practice (the lesson moves from controlled practice to guided practice and uses the text books when necessary);
③Production: use activities, role-plays or tasks to encourage “free” use of language (the students are encouraged to use what they have learned to complete communicative tasks. At this stage, the key point is meaning rather than accuracy of language forms).
In a typical PPP lesson, teachers first introduce the new language items according to the context, and then organize controlled practice such as drilling, repetition, dialogue reading, etc.
①新授：引出新的项目如词汇、语法结构；
②练习：操练、练习、对话练习 （课程由固定的练习向指导的练习过渡，必要时可使用课本）；
③巩固：用活动、角色扮演或任务来鼓励“自由”使用语言(鼓励学生用所学的知识来完成交际任务，在此阶段，关键是意义而非准确使用语言形式)。
典型的PPP课堂首先由教师根据语境介绍新语言项目，然后组织练习，如操练、重复、对话等。
(2) Differences between TBLT and PPP（任务型语言教学和PPP教学的不同）
Willis (1996) demonstrated the differences between the two models from two angles: one angle explains in terms of the way students use and experience the language; the other angle explains in terms of the procedures and context of learning.
The way students use and experience language:
①free of language control and learners use their own linguistic resources;
②a genuine purpose to use language to communicate;
③a free exchange of thoughts;
④appropriateness and accuracy of language form in general, the production of a variety of language forms;
⑤a genuine requirement for accuracy and fluency.
PPP offers a simplified approach to language learning. And students’ language proficiency is developed gradually by each new lesson. However, simply producing forms in isolation will not help learners develop communicative competence.
The context for grammar teaching and form-focused activities:
①a task-established context;
②guiding students to think and analyze, not simply to repeat, manipulate and apply;
③a more varied exposure to natural language;
④language forms not pre-selected for focus;
⑤learners’ free selection of language;
⑥cycle leading from fluency to accuracy;
⑦practice of integrated skills in TBLT.
Research shows that sufficient practice to use the language in meaningful context is the best way of ensuring students to learn language effectively.
威利斯提出可以从两个方面来理解：一是学生使用和练习语言的方式；另一个是学习的程序和情境。
学生使用和体验语言的方法：
①不受语言控制，学习者自主调动自己的语言资源；
②真正需要使用语言来交流；
③自由交换意见、想法；
④语言形式恰当、准确，多种语言形式产出；
⑤要求准确和流利。
PPP提供了语言学习的简便方法。学习者的语言水平得以逐步提高。但是，仅仅知道语言形式无法帮助学习者获得交际能力。
语法教学和以形式为中心的活动语境：
①建立在任务基础上的语境；
②鼓励学生思考和分析，不只是重复、操作和运用；
③提供更加多变的自然语言环境；
④不限定语言形式；
⑤学习者自由选择语言；
⑥学习顺序从流利性到准确性；
⑦语言综合技能得到练习。
研究表明，让学生尽量练习在有意义的情境中使用语言是确保学生有效习得语言的最好方式。
5 How is a task designed（任务的设计）
【考点：设计任务的步骤】
Step 1: Take students’ needs, interests, and abilities into consideration.
Step 2: Think of all possible tasks.
Step 3: Evaluate the task list.
Step 4: Select the language items.
Step 5: Preparing teaching materials.
第一步：考虑学生的需求、兴趣和技能。
第二步：思考可能的任务。
第三步：评估任务。
第四步：选择语言项目。
第五步：准备材料。
Ⅳ. The fit of CLT and TBLT in the Chinese context（交际语言教学与任务型语言教学在中文语境中的契合）
1 Controversies and debates about CLT（交际语言教学的争论）
【考点：交际语言教学的恰当性和中文环境的任务型语言教学；交际语言教学的问题；任务型语言教学的限制条件】
①The very first and forceful argument is whether it meets the need of learners in Chinese context.
②The second problem of CLT is related to the syllabus designed in the classroom. Designing a syllabus that matches functions to forms is difficult due to the complexity of language.
③The third problem is that some people doubt that whether this approach is suitable for all age levels of learners or all competence levels of learners.
①第一个有力的争论是它是否适应在中文环境下学生的需求。
②第二个问题是交际语言教学与教学大纲的设计相联系。由于语言的复杂性，设计一个将功能与形式相匹配的教学大纲非常困难。
③第三个问题是一些人怀疑这种方法是否适合不同年纪或不同能力的学习者。
2 Some potential problems of TBLT（任务型语言教学的潜在问题）
①It may not be efficient to present new language items.
②In contexts with limited language exposure and class time, TBLT may not be appropriate.
③Teachers need to prepare tasks carefully and find suitable materials, which can be demanding.
④The culture of learning: Some students may struggle to adapt to TBLT and require training in skills like problem-solving, discussing, inquiring, and reasoning.
⑤Level of difficulty: Students need sufficient linguistic resources to handle holistic communication in TBLT. Teachers must ensure tasks are within students’ comfort zone and related to their experience.
①对于介绍新语言项目可能不是很有效。
②在语言接触有限和课堂时间有限的情境下，TBLT可能不太合适。
③教师需要仔细准备任务并找到合适的材料，这可能会增加工作量。
④学习文化：一些学生可能难以适应TBLT，并需要接受解决问题、讨论、探究和推理等技能的培训。
⑤难度水平：学生需要足够的语言资源来处理整体交流，才能在TBLT中表现出色。教师必须确保任务的语言要求符合学生的舒适区，并与学生的经验相关。
Ⅴ. Conclusion（结论）
This unit explores the evolution of language teaching methodologies, emphasizing the importance of context-tailored approaches and the integration of various methods to enhance communicative competence.
It underscores that the effectiveness of any teaching method lies in its suitability to the specific teaching context, advocating for a balanced and flexible application of methodologies.
本单元探讨了语言教学方法的演变，强调了根据教学背景量身定制方法的重要性，以及整合多种方法来提升交际能力的必要性。
它强调任何教学方法的有效性都取决于其是否适合特定的教学背景，提倡平衡且灵活地运用各种教学方法。