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本章要点：
1 The way we learn languages
我们习得语言的方式
2 Views on language
语言观点
3 The structural view
结构主义语言观
4 The functional interactional view
功能交互语言观
5 The critical view
批判语言观
6 The behaviorist theory
行为主义学习理论
7 Cognitive theory
认知学习理论
8 Constructivist theory
建构主义学习理论
9 Socio-cultural theory
社会文化主义理论
本章考点：
我们如何习得语言；结构主义语言观；功能交互语言观；批判语言观；行为主义学习理论；认知学习理论；建构主义学习理论；社会文化主义理论
本章内容索引：
Ⅰ. How do we learn languages?
Ⅱ. Views on language
1 The structural view
2 The functional interactional view
3 The critical view
4 Summary of the three views
Ⅲ. Views on language learning and learning in general
1 Behaviorist theory
2 Cognitive theory
3 Constructivist theory
4 Socio-cultural theory
Ⅳ. Conclusion
Ⅰ. How do we learn languages?（我们习得语言的方式）
Many human behaviors will show the influence of personal past experience, including learning foreign languages. The language learning mode that the language teachers accepted will affect their later teaching methods in the class.
The difficulty of language teaching is to enable learners with many differences to successfully acquire the new language.
许多人类行为会显现出个人过往经验的影响力，学习外语也是如此。语言老师接受过的语言学习模式会影响他们之后在课堂上的教学方式。
语言教学的难点在于尽量使存在许多不同之处的学习者成功习得新语言。
Ⅱ.Views on language（语言理论）
【考点：结构主义语言观、功能交互语言观、批判语言观】
Three views about the nature of language: There are many possible theoretical positions about the nature of language. Here are three different views which are explicitly or implicitly reflected in current approaches to language learning.
关于语言本质的三种观点：在语言的本质上有很多潜在的语言观点，当前语言学习的方法直接或间接反映了三种不同观点。
1 The structural view（结构主义语言观）
The structural view of language is that language is a system of structurally related elements for the transmission of meaning.
结构主义语言理论认为语言是一个用于传递意义的系统，其中各因素在结构上相互联系。
(1) The elements of language system (subsystems)（语言系统的因素（子系统））
①the sound system (phonology)
②the discrete units of meaning produced by sound combinations (morphology)
③the system of combining units of meaning for communication (syntax)
①发音系统（音系学）
②由声音组合产生的各种语言离散单位的意义（形态学）
③各种意义单位组合的用于交流的系统（句法学）
(2) Target of language learning（语言学习的目标）
The target of language learning, in the structural view, is the mastery of elements of this system.
结构主义认为语言学习的目标是掌握语言系统的各因素。
(3) Methods based on this view（基于该理论的语言学习方法）
①the Audiolingual method
②Total Physical Response
③the Silent Way
①听说法
②全身反应法
③沉默法
2 The functional interactional view（功能交互语言观）
The functional interactional view sees language as discourse, that means, language is a tool to do things and communicate with others.
功能交互语言观将语言视为话语，这意味着语言是一种做事情和与他人交流的工具。
(1) The functional view（功能主义）
The theory holds that language is a means of doing things, not just a mere linguistic system.
The semantic and communicative dimensions of language are more emphasized than the grammatical characteristics, although these are also included.
①Here are some of the areas of research in this view of language: sociolinguistics, pragmatics, semantics.
②Target of language learning: The target of language learning is to learn to express communication functions and categories of meaning.
③Some of the language learning approaches and methods based on this view of language are:
Communicative approaches;
Functional-notional syllabuses;
The Natural Approach.
功能主义理论认为语言是一种做事的工具，而不仅仅是单纯的话语系统。
相较于语法特征，功能主义语言理论更加注重语义和交际层面，尽管它也涵盖了语法特征。
①功能主义语言理论的相关研究领域：社会语言学、语用学、语义学。
②语言学习的目标：学习表达交际功能和意义类别。
③基于功能主义理论的语言学习方法：
交际法；
功能意念教学大纲；
自然法。
(2) The interactional view（交互语言理论）
The interactional view of language sees language primarily as the means for establishing and maintaining interpersonal relationships and for performing social transactions between individuals.
①Here are some of the areas of research in this view of language:
Interactional analysis;
Conversational analysis;
Ethnomethodology.
②Target of language learning: The target of language learning in the interactional view is learning to initiate and maintain conversations with other people.
③Some of the language learning approaches and methods based on this view of language are: strategic interaction and communicative approaches.
④Teaching Methods in the Language Classroom: FL teachers must provide students with adequate teaching methodology and time, as well as appropriate vocabulary and learning activities that will allow for the development of verbal skills.
交互语言理论主要将语言看做是建立和维持人际关系的基本手段，并履行人与人之间社会交际的功能。
①交互语言理论所要研究的领域有：
交互分析；
会话分析；
民族方法学。
②交互语言理论的语言学习目标是学会发起并维持与他人的对话。
③基于交互语言理论的语言学习方法有：策略互动和交际法。
④语言课堂的教学方法：教师应该给学生提供充足的教学方法论和时间、适当的词汇和学习活动，来提升他们的口语技能。
(3) The functional interactional view（功能交互语言观）
The functional interactional view combines these two perspectives, recognizing that language serves both functional and social purposes.
It emphasizes the need for learners to develop their language skills in authentic communicative contexts, where they can interact with others to achieve specific communicative goals.
This approach promotes a more holistic and practical approach to language learning, focusing on the development of both functional competence and social interaction skills.
功能交互语言观结合了这两种观点，认识到语言既服务于功能目的，也服务于社会目的。
它强调学习者需要在真实的交际环境中发展自己的语言技能，在那里他们可以与他人互动以实现特定的交际目标。
这种方法提倡一种更全面、更实用的语言学习方法，注重功能能力和社交互动技能的发展。
3 The critical view（批判主义语言观）
The critical view sees language as an ideology. This viewpoint may involve critical analysis and evaluation of the structure, use, influence, or socio-cultural and power relations behind language.
批判性语言观将语言视为一种意识形态。这种观点可能涉及对语言的结构、使用、影响或者对语言背后的社会文化、权力关系等方面的批判性分析和评价。
4 Summary of the three views（三种语言观综述）
The various views on language—structural, functional interactional, and ideological—shape our understanding of language learning, emphasizing not just the mastery of structural rules but also the appropriate use of language in communication and the recognition of its ideological underpinnings.
关于语言的各种观点——结构观、功能互动观和意识形态观——塑造了我们对语言学习的理解，强调不仅要掌握结构规则，还要在交际中恰当使用语言，并认识其背后的意识形态基础。
Ⅲ. Views on language learning and learning in general（关于语言学习和一般学习的理论）
【考点：强调过程的语言学习理论和强调条件的语言学习理论；行为主义学习理论；认知学习理论；建构主义学习理论；社会文化主义理论】
The study of language learning contains: process-oriented theories and condition-oriented theories.
Process-oriented theories emphasize process involves the way our brains organize new information, such as habit formation, induction, inference, hypothesis testing, and generalization.
Condition-oriented theories focus on the study of the human context and the physical context in the language learning process. The theory believes that the number of students, the type of language input and the learning environment will affect the result of language learning.
语言学习的研究可以分为两个方面：强调过程的研究和强调条件的研究。
强调过程的语言学习理论涉及大脑组织新信息的方式，诸如习惯的养成、归纳、推论、假设检验和概括。
强调条件的语言学习理论注重研究语言学习过程中人本语境和实体语境，该理论认为学生的数量、学习者输入的种类以及学习环境都会影响语言学习的最终效果。
1 Behaviorist theory（行为主义学习理论）
Referring the stimulus-response theory of psychology, the behavioral psychologist Skinner came up with the Behaviorist theory. He claimed that language should also be learned as a form of behavior. Human language learning behavior is similar to the process in which animals are trained to respond to stimuli. This theory of learning is known as behaviorism.
The audio-lingual method is deeply influenced by behaviorism. This method believes that language is acquired through continuous repetition and reinforcement by the teacher, and therefore encourages continuous “listen and repeat” practice activities. When students make listening and spelling errors, the teacher will correct them in time. When students are right, the teacher will praise them. This method is still popular in many countries.
参考刺激-反应的心理学理论，行为心理学家Skinner提出了行为主义学习理论。人类的语言学习行为与动物经过训练对刺激有反应的过程类似。他的学习理论被称为行为主义。
听说法受行为主义影响很深。这种理论认为语言是通过老师不断地重复和强化习得的，因此鼓励不断地进行“听并重复”的练习活动。学生出现听读错误时老师及时更正，正确时老师进行表扬。目前这个方法在许多国家依然流行。
2 Cognitive theory（认知学习理论）
The term cognitivism is to describe loosely methods in which students are asked to think rather than simply repeat.
A language learner acquires language competence which enables him to produce language.
One influential idea is that students should be allowed to create their own sentences based on their understanding of certain rules. This idea is clearly in opposition to the audio-lingual method.
“认知主义”这一术语主要描述老师要求学生思考的方式，而非仅仅重复。
语言习得者获得能够让其输出语言的语言能力。
一个有影响的观点是老师应该让学生在理解一些规则的基础上自己创造句子。这个观点与听说法明显相左。
3 Constructivist theory（建构主义学习理论）
The constructivist theory believes that learning is a process in which the learner constructs meaning based on his/her own experiences and what he/she already knows.
John Dewey believed that teaching should be built based on what learners already knew and engage learners in learning activities. Teachers need to design environments and interact with learners to foster inventive, creative, critical learners.
建构主义认为：学习是学习者依据已有经验和已有知识建构意义的过程。
约翰·杜威认为，教学应该建立在学生已有知识基础上，让学生参与学习活动。老师需要创造环境，和学生交流，从而培养富有发明精神、创造力和批判性思维的学生。
4 Socio-cultural theory（社会文化理论）
The socio-cultural theory regards learning as a process that people co-construct and interact with others. This is a process that we focus on agency and subjectivity, the production and explanation of meaning and the display of communication.
Here are several concepts related to the theory:
社会文化理论将学习视为人们与他人共同构建和互动的过程。这是一个我们关注能动性和主观性、意义的产生和解释以及交流的展示的过程。
以下是与该理论相关的几个概念：
(1) Mediation（媒介）
Mediation is the fundamental concept of socio-cultural theory. It is the interaction between the mind and the outside world. In an English class, the teacher can use the mediation such as a person (e.g. a peer) or a symbol (e.g. the language) to reduce language learners’ anxiety.
媒介是社会文化理论的基本概念。它是心灵与外界的互动。在英语课堂上，老师可以使用人（如同伴）或符号（如语言）等中介来减轻语言学习者的焦虑。
(2) ZPD (the Zone of Proximal Development)（最近发展区）
The skills that a student has already mastered represent the actual level. The skills that a student can master when cultivated by others represent the potential level. The zone between the two levels is called ZPD.
学生已经掌握的技能代表了实际水平。学生在他人培养下能够掌握的技能代表了其潜在水平。两个水平之间的区域称为最近发展区。
(3) Scaffolding（脚手架）
The language learner can reach his/her ZPD with the help of teachers. The questions and explanations that the teacher puts forward is called scaffolding.
语言学习者可以在老师的帮助下达到他/她的最近发展区。老师提出的问题和解释被称为脚手架。
(4) Internalization and regulation（内化和调控）
Internalization can be defined as the transformation of external support into an internally accessible resource for an individual. This process allows an individual to progress from relying on external objects for regulation, to utilizing other forms of regulation, and ultimately achieving self-regulation.
内化指的是将外部支持转化为个人内部可使用的资源。这个过程允许个人从依赖外部对象进行监管，发展到利用其他形式的监管，最终实现自我监管。
Ⅳ. Conclusion（总结）
In this unit, we have an overall view of language and language learning, and get to know the main views of language. There is no doubt that language learning is a complex process, but the general understanding of language and language learning will help language educators better grasp different teaching methods and techniques.
在本单元中，我们全面了解了语言和语言学习，并了解主要的语言观。毫无疑问，语言学习是一个复杂的过程，但对语言和语言学习的大致理解将有助于语言教育工作者更好地掌握不同的教学方法和技巧。