比较下面两组句子:
我打算将(A)组中的量化词称为主体量化词(subject quantifiers),将(B)组中的那些量化词称为客体量化词(object quantifiers)。
这种区分对于理解古汉语中的量化来说似乎是必不可少的,但到目前为止,这一区别尚未得到应有的重视。(可参考相关著作,如杜百胜〔Dobson 1959〕第78页以后的内容。)
我们将会发现在主体量化词和客体量化词内部还存在着有待发掘的重要区别,但直到现在,这些区别也从未得到恰当的阐释。
本小节将对“兼”“遍”“偏”“周”“泛”“悉”“尽”和“共”等词的量化用法进行考察。
“兼”是一个专门的客体量化词,由“合并、统一(to combine,to unite)”义的常用动词“兼”演化而来。“兼”也有形容词用法,但不太常见:
(1)寒暑不兼时而至。(《韩非子·显学》)
Heat and cold do not arrive at the same time.HF 50(352.9).
阐述清楚“兼”从一个实义动词演变成一个语法词的过程,可能很有意义。思考下面的例句:
(2)桓公兼此数节者而尽有之。(《荀子·仲尼》)
Duke Huan combined these skills and had them all.Xun7.8.
(注意此处“尽”作为一个常规客体量化词的用法。)
在类似的结构中,这种“尽”可以省略:
(3)故今世为人臣者兼刑德而用之。(《韩非子·二柄》)
Now the ministers of our age combine punishment and generosity(in their power)and use both of them.HF 7(27.12).
(4)今夫天兼天下而爱之。(《墨子·天志中》)
Now Heaven(combines everyone and loves them,i.e.:)loves everyone.Mo 27.33.参照《墨子·天志下》中的例句。
(5)兼此而能之,备矣。(《荀子·君子》)
He who is capable of all these things is a perfect man.Xun 24.23.参照《韩诗外传卷四》中的例句。
注意句尾“矣”的非时间性用法。
(6)而王者兼而有是者也。(《荀子·王霸》)
The true king is the sort of person who has all of these things.Xun 11.74.参照《荀子·王霸》中的例句。
客体量化词常常保留着“统一”(不同的)客体的含义,但这句可能是例外:
(7)人主兼而礼之。(《韩非子·显学》)
The rulers of men treat all of them with politeness.HF 50(352.8).
括号里“不同的”具有非常重要的微妙含义。通常,“统一、合并”义动词“兼”的客体指的是有差别的、不同的事物。因此,作为客体量化词,“兼”含有类似于“所有不同的事物”“每一个(不同的)事物”的意义。而动词“兼”和量化词“兼”之间的联系,则是通过有意思的习语“兼而+动作+对象(jian er VERB OBJECT)”展现出来的。这个习语可以逐字翻译为“combiningly VERB the OBJECTs(统一地做某事)”,但是,其真正的含义是“行动涉及所有(不同的)事物(VERB all the 〔different〕OBJECTs)”。这个联系对于正确理解量化词“兼”的本质至关重要:
(8)然而礼兼而用之。(《荀子·礼论》)
And Ritual uses both these things.Xun 19.64.
荀子强调的是,针对各异的事物,礼将其统一起来并以适宜每个事物的方式运用它们。
我认为甚至下面的例句中也存在我们所说的微妙含义:
(9)若夫兼而覆之,兼而爱之,兼而制之……(《荀子·富国》)
If one holds one’s hand over each one, loves each one, and controls each one...Xun 10.45.
显然,例(8)中的“而”并非必不可少:
(10)周人修而兼用之。(《礼记·王制》)
The Zhou people cultivated these and used them all.Li Ji I.648.参照《庄子·至乐》中的“尽用”一例。
(11)周人兼用之。(《礼记·檀弓上》)
The Zhou people used both of these things.Li Ji I.169.
同样,对于例(9)我们也有平行用例:
(12)合德而兼覆之则万物受命。(《管子·版法解》)
无亲而兼载之则诸生皆殖。(同上)
无私而兼照之则美恶不隐。(同上)
If you integrate your generosity and cover each of them with it, then all creatures will obey your orders...
If you are without partiality and you support them all, then all living things will grow abundantly...
If you are without private preference and you throw light over them all, then beauty and ugliness will not be hidden.Guan 66(3.50-11).
“而”字的可选择性在下面这段话中表现得很明确:
(13)何以知兼爱天下之人也,以兼而食之也。(《墨子·天志下》)
How do we know that Heaven likes all the people of the world? Because it gives them all nourishment.Mo 28.19.
从目前引证的“兼”的量化用法来看,人们会得出这样一个印象,即被量化的客体倾向于用“之”代替。这确实是很常见的情况:
(14)晋侯兼享之。(《左传·襄公二十六年》)
The Marquis of Jin entertained them all.Zuo Xiang 26.同样的情况,参照《左传·定公六年》中的例句。
(15)赵孟、叔孙豹、曹大夫入于郑,郑伯兼享之。(《左传·昭公元年》)
Zhao Meng,Shu-sun Bao and the Great Officer of Cao entered the capital of Zheng.The Earl of Zheng gave them all an entertainment.Zuo Zhao 1.(可参照理雅各〔Legge 577〕的翻译。)
(16)唯君子然后兼有之。(《荀子·正论》)
Only the gentleman can have all these things.Xun 18.110.
(17)兼指之。(《墨子·经说下》)
It points to all of them.Mo 43.43.
更多的用例,见《荀子·富国》《荀子·王霸》《荀子·君道》《韩非子·五蠹》等
的例子。
(18)兼权之。(《荀子·不苟》)
(One must)weigh them all against each other.Xun 3.46.
我们还可以很容易地举出更多例句。
但正如例(13)所示,客体的代词化显然并不是强制性的:
(19)天之裁大故能兼覆万物,地之裁大故能兼载万物。(《管子·形势》)
The plans of Heaven are large, so it can cover all things.The plans of Earth are large, so it can sustain all things.Guan 64(3.34-13).
“兼”可以量化非常复杂的对象:
(20)宋公兼享晋楚之大夫。(《左传·襄公二十七年》)
The Duke of Song entertained all the great officers of Jin and Chu.Zuo Xiang 27.
这里的“兼”带有通常的“同时发生”这个隐含义,但显然并非总是有这种隐含义。
(21)兼服天下之心。(《荀子·非十二子》)
He made all the hearts of the world follow him.Xun 6.27.
(22)兼爱天下之人。(《墨子·天志下》)
He loves all the people of the world equally.Mo 28.19.
(23)今兼听杂学缪行同异之辞,安得无乱乎?(《韩非子·显学》)
“Now that heretical studies are equally listened to and contradictory theories are absurdly acted upon,how can there be other than chaos?”HF II.1085.(这是廖文奎〔Liao II.300〕的翻译。)参照《国语·吴语》中的例句。
当然,被量化的对象也可以是一个单独的词:
(24)兼制人,人莫得而制也,是人情之所同欲也。(《荀子·王霸》)
To have universal control over men(lit: control them all), and to have none of them able to dictate to oneself, that’s what people by nature equally like.Xun 11.74.
这里的“同”似乎也处于即将成为量化词的过程中。这个“同”让我们很容易看到副词是如何变为量化词的。
(25)大国不过欲兼畜人。(《老子》第六十一章)
Large states just want to rear all men.Lao 61.(当然这个句子很难被完全翻译出来,但需要注意的是,很多译者都未能理解“兼”的意思。如刘殿爵〔D.C.Lau p.122〕的译文。)
(26)兼制天下。(《荀子·儒效》)
He controlled everyone in the world.Xun 8.3.参照《荀子·富国》中的例句。
(26a)精于道者兼物物。(《荀子·解蔽》)
He who subtly understands the way treats all things as things.Xun21.52.
(27)今以一人兼听天下。(《荀子·王霸》)
Now if as a single person one listens to everyone in the world...Xun 11.58.参照《韩诗外传》卷四中的例句。
在特殊情况下,“兼”可以同时量化主体和客体,尽管用这种方式描写下面句子中的情况让人觉得有点迂腐:
(28)若使天下兼相爱。(《墨子·兼爱上》)
If the world(i.e.everyone in the world)loved everyone...Mo 14.17.
在某些语境中,“兼”可以不带明确的量化客体出现:
(29)兼覆无遗。(《荀子·王制》)
He holds his hand over each things, leaving nothing out.Xun 9.5.
(29a)墨子泛爱,兼利而非斗。(《庄子·天下》)
Mo Zi loved everyone, worked in the interest of everyone and criticised war.Zhuang 33.18.
(30)有兼听之明。(《荀子·正名》)
He had the intelligence of someone who has heard everything.Xun 22.43.
有意思的是,“兼”的语法化用法自身可以被再次动词化:
(31)乃若兼则善矣。(《墨子·兼爱中》)
If he is universal, he is good.Mo 15.16.
正如我们所料,“兼”的语法化用法也可以被名词化:
(32)故兼者圣王之道也。(《墨子·兼爱下》)
Universalism thus is the way of the Sage King.Mo 16.83.
最后再来看诸多令人不解的反例中的一例:
(33)(使亲忘我易,)兼忘天下难;兼忘天下易,使天下兼忘我难。(《庄子·天运》)
Forgetting the whole world is difficult.Forgetting the whole world is easy; making the whole world forget oneself is difficult.Zhuang 14.10.
注意,最后一个“兼”好像是被用作了主体量化词。我们似乎有理由认为,这种用法的“兼”是在话语风格和排比因素的刺激下产生的。我觉得一般情况下庄子不会使用主体量化词“兼”,他之所以会使用这样一个奇怪的语法形式,是为了形成句式上的排比。
还要注意,例(33)中的前两个小句之间并不矛盾。上古汉语中“善”(good)、“易”(easy)这种关系谓语的语义还没有解释清楚。一旦得到解释,上古汉语中比较结构这一概念也就可以逐渐被理解。
庄子在这里把主体量化词“兼”用得似乎非常自然,还有一个原因,是“兼”在该句中起到了一种核心作用。参照本节例(98)。
由于量化词“泛”很少见,因此,可以把找到的全部用例都列举出来。
(34)泛爱万物,天地一体也。(《庄子·天下》)
If you love all things, Heaven and Earth are like one body.Zhuang 33.73.
(35)泛拜众宾于堂上。(《礼记·丧大记》)
He bowed to all the guests up in the hall.Li Ji.
(36)墨子泛爱,兼利而非斗。(《庄子·天下》)
Mo Zi advocated universal love,benefitting everyone,and he argued against war.Zhuang 33.18.参照《荀子·成相》中的“泛利兼爱”一例。
上文提出“兼”并非简单地意指“所有事物(all the objects)”,而是倾向于表达“所有不同的事物(all the different objects)”“各不相同的每一个事物”之类的意思。现在我想继续说明的是,“遍”不是只表示“所有事物”,而是可以表达“无差别的所有事物(all the objects indiscriminately)”“到处都有的所有事物(all the objects everywhere)”这类的意思。
我想说明的问题在《孟子》中有极好的例证,以下这段话有必要详细引用:
(37)知者无不知也,当务之为急;
仁者无不爱也,急亲贤之为务。
尧舜之知而不遍物,急先务也;
尧舜之仁不遍爱人,急亲贤也。(《孟子·尽心上》)
The knowledgeable person has knowledge about everything, but he makes the most urgent efforts on the tasks at hand.
The humane person has love for everyone, but he considers it his task to make the urgent efforts for relatives and men of the talent.
Although Yao and Shun were knowledgeable, their knowledge did not cover all things indiscriminately, they made their most urgent efforts on their first tasks.
Although Yao and Shun were humane, they did not love all men indiscriminately, they made the urgent efforts for relatives and men of the talent.Meng 7A46.
显然,孟子在这段话中发现了“囊括无遗”的客体量化词“无不”(是“无所不”的惯用缩略)和“遍”之间微妙的不同。事实上,这段话的全部要点就在于这一区别。
我认为,孟子没有用“兼”代替“遍”来表达他的观点,这是有深刻的道理的。出于辩论的原因,他当然更想用“兼爱”,因为可以借此直接羞辱墨家。但是“兼”的意思不同于“遍”,并且二者都不能简单地看作“无不”的同义词。
在《荀子》讨论逻辑的《正名篇》中,有另外一个使用“遍”的句子,对我们是有帮助的:
(38)故万物虽众有时而欲遍举之。(《荀子·正名》)
Thus although the 10, 000 things are many, one sometimes wishes to refer to all of them indiscriminately.Xun 22.23.
我的看法是,在例(38)中人们通常不会使用“兼”。“兼”通常不表达这种总括性的内容,但是又可参照上文例(17)。
(39)遍问于大夫。(《国语·晋语八》)
He asked all the grandees indiscriminately.GY 14.10 295.
例(39)中的主语宣子咨询某个信息。如果他是询问每个人的意见并分别衡量每个意见,我猜想这里用“遍”就不合适了。
被“遍”量化的对象在语法上可以相当复杂:
(40)君子之所谓贤者,非能遍能人之所能之谓也;
君子之所谓知者,非能遍知人之所知之谓也;
君子之所谓辩者,非能遍辩人之所辩之谓也;
君子之所谓察者,非能遍察人之所察之谓也。(《荀子·儒效》)
What the gentleman calls a worthy, is not someone who is in a position to do everything that others can do.
What the gentleman calls a knowing is not someone who is in a position to know everything that other people know.
What the gentleman calls a good arguer is not someone who is in a position to argue for everything that others are able to argue for.
What the gentleman calls a perceptive person is not someone who is in a position to investigate everything that others are investigating.Xun 8.25.
我认为“遍能”描述的是对各种能力的全面覆盖,而“兼能”描述的是不同技能的一种结合。
现在看来,对两项内容的“全面覆盖(blanket coverage)”可能是一个荒谬的概念,并且据我所知,“遍”从不表示“两者都(both the objects)”的意思。如上文例(11)这样的句子如果用“遍”就会非常不合适:
(41)周人遍用之。
如果这个句子完全可以被接受的话,那么“遍”必须指向两个以上的事物,而非像例(11)中的“兼”那样仅指向两个事物。但事实上我发现了一个有意思的现象:组合“遍用”从不出现,而“兼用”却很常见。
同样值得注意的是,我们找到了三例“兼享”,及以下例子:
(42)盈出,遍拜之。(《左传·襄公二十三年》)
Ying came forward and bowed to everyone on all sides in one blanket gesture.Zuo Xiang 23.7.
仍然有人会坚称,我们找到数例“兼享”而找不到一例“遍享”,这纯属偶然。因为还有下面这样的例子:
(43)于是遍饮而去。(《吕氏春秋·爱士》)
Then he offered them all a drink and went his way.LSCQ 8.5.
当然,如果我们这里用“兼”,也不会对句义产生任何影响!首先值得注意的是,在《韩诗外传》中类似的语句也用“遍”:
(44)缪公乃求酒,遍饮之。(《韩诗外传》卷十)
Then Duke Mu found some wine and gave a round of drinks.HSWZ 10.12.
故事讲的是,缪公给乡野村夫们赐了一遍酒。我觉得,如果他是以佳酿宴请大夫,文本中可能就会使用更为礼貌的“兼饮”。
这就是为什么在下例中我们用“遍”而不用“兼”的原因:
(45)程婴遍拜诸将。(《新序·节士》)
Cheng Ying bowed to all the generals.XinXu 7.285.
由此我们还可以明白为什么“遍”适用于下例:
(46)遍告诸将曰。(《新序·节士》)
He announced to all the generals:...XinXu 7.254.
(47)遍戒其所知曰……(《国语·晋语九》)
He issued a blanket warning to all those he knew...GY 15.11 015.参照《国语·周语上》中的例句。
(48)天子遍祀群神品物。(《国语·楚语下》)
The emperor sacrifices to all the various sprits(indiscriminately: no matter which part of the empire they are attached to)with the sacrificial items.GY 18.12 715.
到现在我们应该清楚了为什么在下面这样的句子中使用“兼”就不自然了:
(49)目不能遍视,手不能遍操,口不能遍味。(《墨子·辞过》)
The eye does not see everything(everywhere indiscriminately),the hand does not grasp everything,the tongue does not taste everything.Mo 6.25.(“遍”字似乎经常有一种微妙的空间上的意味。)
另一方面,还有这样的句子,我们用“遍”还是用“兼”似乎没有什么区别:
(50)无天下之委财,而欲遍赡万民,利不能足也。(《淮南子·齐俗》)
If one lacks the combined stocks of the world but wishes to give enough to all the myriad of the world, then one’s goods will be insufficient.HNT 11.8a.
“遍”表达的好像是“各个地方的百姓(the myriad people everywhere)”之类的微妙含义。
(51)遍知万物而不知人道,不可谓智。遍爱群生而不爱人类,不可谓仁。(《淮南子·主术》)
If someone knows all things but does not know the way of man, he cannot be called wise; if someone loves all the various living things indiscriminately but does not love mankind, he cannot be called good.HNT 9.32a.
(52)凡战必悉熟偏备。(《吕氏春秋·察微》)
Speaking of battles in general, one must be familiar with everything and prepared for everything.LSCQ 16.6.
(53)义者,非能遍利天下之民也,利一人而天下从风。(《淮南子·主术》)
Although a righteous man cannot give benefits to everyone in the world, the people of the world follow his lead.HNT 9.26a.
(54)殽之序,遍祭之。(《礼记·曲礼上》)
According to the order in which they are served he sacrifices for them all.Li Ji I.35.
“遍”也可以产生形容词意义,指“一个区域的”整体(“the whole of”an area):
(55)是以遍天下之人,皆欲得其长上之赏誉,避其毁罚。(《墨子·尚同下》)
Therefore the people of the whole all desire reward and praise from their superiors and try to avoid criticism and punishment.Mo 13.39.也可以参照《墨子·尚同下》和《墨子·尚同中》中的例句。
(56)遍国中无与立谈者。(《孟子·离娄下》)
In the whole state there is no one with whom to stand and talk.Meng 4B33.
这些用例显然和“遍”常见的表示“空间的(spatial)”微妙含义有关。参照《管子·制分》中的“千里遍知之(everywhere within a thousand miles they know it.Guan 29〔2.23-7〕.)”
下面的例子之所以很有意思是有多方面原因的,但其一在于它说明了一个事实,即“遍”可以被用作一个和“皆”或“毕”相当的主体量化词:
(57)上不天则下不遍覆,心不地则物不必载。(《韩非子·大体》)
If superiors do not behave like Heaven then those below will not all be covered; when the mind does not behave like the Earth then the creatures will not be sustained.HF 29(157.6).
有人倾向于说这里的“遍”量化了一个已经被转换到主语位置上的底层宾语(underlying object),而且还认为下面的句子也是类似的用例:
(58)揺木者一一摄其叶,则劳而不遍;左右拊其本,而叶遍揺矣。(《韩非子·外储说右下》)
If someone wants to shake a tree and pulls the leaves one by one, that will be hard work but he will not shake the whole tree.If he attacks the root(stem)from left and right, then the leaves will all be shaken.HF 35(258.9).
总体来说,似乎是客体量化词偶尔可以量化“被动用法的(passivized)”动词的主体。
(59)券遍合。(《战国策·齐策四》)
When the tallies had all been matched...Zhan GuoCe.引自谢迪克(Shadick 1968:29)的相应翻译。
回忆一下短语“遍拜”,然后我们来比较:
(60)周麾而呼曰。(《左传·隐公十一年》)
He waved all around and shouted...Zuo Yin 11.3.
“周”和“遍”的平行性在下面的例句中表现得很明显:
(61)文王周观得失,遍览是非。(《淮南子·主术》)
King Wen looked at all successes and losses, surveyed all rights and wrongs.HNT 9.31a.
“周”的空间内涵在下例中完美地展现了出来:
(62)周知九州岛之地域。(《周礼·地官·大司徒》)
He knew all the areas of the Nine Continents.Zhou Li, Diguan, Dasitu.
正是基于此种用法,墨家的逻辑学家将“周”转变为一个形式上的客体量化词:
(63)待周爱人,而后为爱人。不爱人,不待周不爱人。(《墨子·小取》)
Someone has to love all men, only then does that count as loving men; but one does not have to dislike all men to qualify the predicate“does not love men”.Mo 45.23.
(64)不待周乘马,而后为乘马……待周不乘马,而后为不乘马。(《墨子·小取》)
Someone does not have to ride all horses in order to qualify for the predicate“rides horses”, but only if he not-rides all horses can one say that he does not ride horses.Mo 45.24.
但逻辑学家的用法没有被其他人采用。
“偏”有时被用作非全称客体量化词(non-universal object quantifier),意指“只是众多对象中的某些而非全部(only some but not all of the objects)”。
(65)偏诛而不尽。(《韩非子·内储说下·六微》)
He executed some of them, but not all.HF 31(182.10).
(66)三者偏亡,焉无安人。(《荀子·礼论》)
Where one of three is missing there is no peace for the people.Xun 19.15.注意,“亡”是一个及物的无主动词。
(67)损,偏去也。(《墨子·经上》)
To diminish is to discard some parts(of oneself)but not all.Mo 40.18.
(68)偏去也者,兼之体也。其体或去或存,谓其存者损。(《墨子·经说上》)
As for discarding some parts: if you take all the parts together, they are the complete body.Of this body, some is discarded, some remains.We say of what remains that it is diminished.Mo 42.18.
“偏”在《墨子》中显然是一个专业术语。葛瑞汉(Graham 1971:84)认识到了这一点,但是他没有把“偏”描写为一个客体量化词。
(69)伛不可偏举,宇也。(《墨子·经说下》)
If a volume is such that you cannot refer only to it and not to others,then that volume is called“space”.Mo 43.67.(可以参照葛瑞汉〔Graham 1971:102〕的相关翻译。)
(70)殊类异故,则不可偏观也。(《墨子·小取》)
If things are of different kinds and have different causes, one must not look at only one of them.Mo 45.10.
(71)老聃之役有庚桑楚者,偏得老聃之道。(《庄子·庚桑楚》)
Among the attendants of Lao Dan was a certain Gengsang Chu who had mastered some but not all of the Way of Lao Dan.Zhuang 23.1.(可以和胡远浚〔Hu 1968:187〕的注释“偏者所谓知其一不知其二者也”相比较。)
(72)二名不偏讳。(《礼记·曲礼上》)
As for the two names,one does not avoid each of them singly,(only the conjunction).Li Ji,Qu Li.(参照《中文大辞典》1112页。)
下面这条时代稍晚的语料清晰地反映了嵇康是如何将“偏”和“不兼”处理为等价的:
(73)偏恃者以不兼无功。(嵇康《养生论》)
If you rely on some things to the exclusion of others, then because of your lack of universality you will not achieve success.Xi Kang, Yangshenglun.
(74)偏听生奸,独任成乱。(《史记·鲁仲连邹阳列传》)
Listening to some to the exclusion of others creates wickedness./Relying on one person to the exclusion of others brings about chaos./ Shi Ji 83.24.
这一用例显示了“独”的某些用法和客体量化词“偏”之间存在结构上的平行性。(关于“独”作为客体量化词用法的进一步讨论,参见“限制量化词”一节。)
(75)偏丧有咎。(《国语·周语下》)
If you lose out on one of these you will be unfortunate.Guo Yu 3.1746.
(76)樊於期偏袒扼腕而进曰……(《战国策·燕策三》)
Fan Yu-qi bared one arm, grasped his wrist and went up saying…ZGC 473(II.129).
(77)靷偏缓。(《吕氏春秋·处方》)
One of the reins was loose.LSCQ 25.5.
这是说,“一侧的缰绳松了”。这里的“偏”似乎是用作主体量化词。但是我们也可以理解为“缰绳在一侧松了(The reins were loose on one side)”。实际上,我更偏向后一种解读。和下面的例句相比较:
(78)使居天子之位,则天下遍为儒墨矣。(《淮南子·主术》)
If they had occupied the emperor’s throne then the people of the empire everywhere would have become Confucians and Mohists.HNT 9.24b.参照《墨子·尚同中》中的例句。
有人会坚持认为这里的“遍”是一个主体量化词“所有(all)”,但我们也可以把它当作“到处(everywhere)”。
想要在这两种分析中选择其一,还需要更多的例子。但是不管我们如何处理这类例子,“偏”和“遍”之间密切的平行关系都是显而易见的。正是由于这种有意思的平行关系,我把非全称量化词(non-universal quantifier)“偏”放在了本节来讨论。
量化词“悉”通常用“尽”来注释,据我所知,从来不用“皆”,即便“皆”是更为常见的全称量化词。其原因并不难找到:“悉”作为一个主要动词时,可以和“尽”同义,意思类似于“耗尽(to exhaust)”;当用作量化词时,“悉”往往用于量化其后动词的宾语:
(79)乃悉取其禁方书,尽与扁鹊。(《史记·扁鹊仓公列传》)
Then he took all his secret books in medical method and gave them all to Pian Que.Shi Ji 105.3.
“悉”很早就用作客体量化词:
(80)悉率左右。(《诗·小雅·吉日》)
“we led on all the attendants.”Shi 180.3.(高本汉译
。)
(81)悉听朕言。(《尚书·汤誓》)
Listen to all our words.Shu 10.9.
(82)悉索敝赋。(《左传·襄公八年》)
We called out all our levies.Zuo Xiang 8.7.
(83)去者之父母妻子,悉举民室材木瓦。(《墨子·号令》)
The parents, wives, and children of those who had gone took up all the beams and tiles from the peoples’houses.Mo 70.56.
《礼记》中可能著述时间较晚的一篇中的一个例子很有启发性:
(84)哀公问曰:“敢问儒行。”孔子对曰:“遽数之不能终其物,悉数之乃留,更仆未可终也。”(《礼记·儒行》)
Duke Ai asked:“Please tell me about the manner of a Confucian!”Confucius replied:“If I go through this fast I cannot get to the end of the matter.If I go through all of this that will take time: I won’t be finished by the time the guard is changed.”Li Ji II.601.
(85)臣愿悉言所闻。(《韩非子·初见秦》)
I want to tell all I know.HF 1.1.参照《战国策·秦策一》中的例句。
(86)齐悉复得其故城。(《史记·燕召公世家》)
Qi got all its original cities back.Shi Ji 34.19.
这个例子说明,“悉”不仅可以出现在一个简单的动宾结构(verb-object-construction)前,也可以出现在一个副动宾结构(adverb-verb-object)前。
例(86)和下例之间的对比极富启发性,例中明显使用了“皆”而非“悉”:
(87)而齐七十余城皆复为齐。(《史记·田单列传》)
And the seventy-odd cities of Qi all became part of Qi again.Shi Ji 82.6.
(88)乃悉以其装赍置二石醇醪。(《史记·袁盎朝晁错列传》)
Then for all his official clothing he bought two gallons of wine.Shi Ji 101.12.
出于量化的目的,介词“以”似乎表现得像动词一样。
(89)庆年七十余,无子,使意尽去其故方,更悉以禁方予之。(《史记·扁鹊仓公列传》)
At the age of seventy-odd years, and without a son, Qing ordered Yi to forget about all his old methods and instead passed on to him all his secret methods.Shi Ji 105.9.
此例与本节的第一个例子非常相似,只不过“尽”和“悉”的使用顺序是颠倒的,这说明二者可以互换。
(90)愿君让封勿受,悉以家私财佐军。(《史记·萧相国世家》)
I wish your lordship would politely refuse and not accept the appointment, and help the army with all your family’s private means.Shi Ji 53.10.
(91)悉以家财求客刺秦王,为韩报仇。(《史记·留侯世家》)
Using all his family means he tried to get a retainer to assassinate the King of Qin as a revenge on behalf of Han.Shi Ji 55.3.
(92)敝邑虽小,已悉起之矣。(《战国策·韩策一》)
My city may be small, but I have already mobilized all the soldiers.ZGC II, 74.
(93)飞鸟悉翔舞于城中下食。(《史记·田单列传》)
Birds were fluttering about everywhere in the city, descending for food.Shi Ji 82.3.
(94)是日悉封何父子兄弟十余人,皆有食邑。(《史记·萧相国世家》)
On the day he enfeoffed Both Xiao Ho’s father, sons, and his brothers, in all more than ten people.They all had towns to live on.Shi Ji 53.9.
(95)因悉起兵,复使甘茂攻之。(《战国策·秦策二》)
So he called out all his soldier and again ordered Gan Mao to attack them.ZGC I.51.参照《战国策·楚策一》和《战国策·魏策二》中的例句。
现在思考一个重要且明显的反例,这个例子中“皆”和“悉”用在平行结构中:
(96)诸男皆尚秦公主,女悉嫁秦诸公子。(《史记·李斯列传》)
All his sons he managed to match with princesses from the House of Qin, all his daughters he gave away to one of the various princes of the House of Qin.Shi Ji 87.14.
“尚”意为“让某人娶到地位更高的人为妻(to marry someone off to a person of higher status)”,“嫁”意为“送出成婚(to give away in marriage)”。这两个动词的主语并非青年男女自己,而是他们的父亲李斯。在主体量化词一节,我们发现“皆”通常量化话题化(topicalized)的前置宾语。正是因为这种用法,在很多主体量化词和客体量化词的使用中确实存在着明显的交叉重合。(我没有说“所有的”,是因为像“莫”这样就不能量化前置的宾语。)
正如我们所料,当主体不可量化时,“悉”也可以和“皆”互换:
(97)项羽乃悉引兵渡河,皆沉船,破釜甑。(《史记·项羽本纪》)
Then Xiang Yu led all his soldiers across the river and proceeded to submerge all the boats and destroy all the pots and pans.Shi Ji 7.
但是例(97)这样的例子确实属于主体量化词一节的例子。
在嵌入式宾语小句(embedded object clause)中,有人可能觉得会出现主体量化词的地方,我们有时看到的是“悉”:
(98)王命众,悉至于庭。(《尚书·盘庚上》)
The king ordered the masses all to come to his courtyard.Shu 16.144.
(99)使吏召诸民当偿者,悉来合券。(《战国策·齐策四》)
He sent out officers to summon the people who had to pay debts to all to match their tallies.ZGC.参照《史记·萧相国世家》中的例句。
应该注意,“悉”在先秦文献中相当少见,但在《史记》中很常见,并且在上古早期汉语(Pre-Classical Chinese)中也曾通行。
我从“尽”和“兼”之间的比较开始阐述。比如,“尽爱”和“兼爱”的意思完全不同:
(100)复,尽爱之道也。(《礼记·檀弓下》)
(The ritual of)recalling(the soul)is the way of consummate love.Li Ji, Tan Gong, I.199.
再来比较一下“尽善”和“兼善”:
(101)子谓《韶》:“尽美矣,又尽善也。”(《论语·八佾》)
The master called the Shao Music perfectly beautiful and at the same time perfectly good.LY 3.25.
(102)穷则独善其身,达则兼善天下。(《孟子·尽心上》)
When they were poor they only worked for the goodness of their own persons; when they had success they worked for the goodness of the empire.Meng 7A9.
很明显,“尽”看上去不像“兼”那样有专门的量化词功能。而且实词“尽”和“兼”显然也不同义。但即使当“尽”确实用作量化词时,其表现也不太像“兼”。首先就是“尽”通常量化句子的主体而“兼”从来不这样。当墨家的逻辑学家写出下面的话时,他们想到的正是“尽”的这种用法:
(103)尽,莫不然也。(《墨子·经上》)
“Jin”is“nothing is not so”.Mo 40.17.
再看下面这样的句子:
(104)万物尽然。(《庄子·齐物论》《管子·禁藏》)
Things are all like that.Zhuang 2.78., Guan 53(3.6-10).
这句话的意思和下面的句子大致相同:
(105)万物莫不然。
当没有合适的客体作为量化对象时,“尽”通常量化主体。和“皆”不同,“尽”完全可以指向大量的事物或各种各样的事物,而非个体:
(106)越国之宝尽在此。(《墨子·兼爱中》)
The whole lot of Yue’s treasure are here.Mo 15.24.
(107)以天下之美为尽在己。(《庄子·秋水》)
He considered that all the beauty of the world was within himself.Zhuang 17.2.
我认为“皆”在《庄子》的例句中可能是不被接受的,而且如果我们把《墨子》例句中的“尽”用“皆”替代,就会以为这个句子在语境中大概指的是某种特殊的宝藏。值得注意的是,人们倾向于把“尽”翻译成“the whole lot of(全部)”,这是因为即使当“尽”确实指向某些事物时,也似乎是在用一种一视同仁、不加区分的方式来处理。
当存在合适的可被量化的客体时,即使主体也是可量化的,“尽”也倾向于量化客体。然而就算我们选择把“尽”作为一个客体量化词,它仍然和客体量化词“兼”完全不同义。这里的“尽”同样保留了它的某些实词义。
思考下面两段话中“尽权”和“兼权”的差别:
(108)物之可备者,智者尽备之;可权者,尽权之。(《淮南子·主术》)
As for those things that one can prepare oneself for, the wise man prepares himself for the whole lot of them.As for those things that one can weigh against each other, he weighs all of them against each other.HNT 9, 32b.
(顺便注意一下,“尽”指向“智者”也是完全没有问题的。)
(109)……而兼权之。(《荀子·不苟》)
...and he weighs both these things(profit and harm)against each other.Xun 3.46.
当焦点是明显有别的单个客体时,《荀子》中会自然地使用“兼”。当讨论的事物被看作是一个开放的集合时,《淮南子》中则会自然地使用“尽”。注意,这里应关注的问题是作者的主观视角,而不是客观逻辑问题,即一个已知集合是否定义完好,是开放的还是封闭的。
“尽用”(用尽某一种事物)和“兼用”(使用所有的事物)似乎有很大的差别。
(110)多积财而不得尽用。(《庄子·至乐》)
They accumulate a lot of wealth and cannot use it all.Zhuang 18.4.
(111)子皮尽用其币。(《左传·昭公十年》)
Zi Pi used all his silk offerings.Zuo Zhao 10.5.
例(110)和例(111)不适合用“兼”。而在下面的句子中则需要用“兼”:
(112)周人兼用之。(《礼记·檀弓上》)
The Zhou people used both these things.Li Ji, Tan Gong, I.169.
和“用”连用时,“尽”保留了一些它的原始实词义“用尽”。类似的还有表示“吃光,吃完”义的“尽食”:
(113)尽食其肉,独舍其肝。(《吕氏春秋·忠良》)
They ate up all his flesh, leaving only his liver.ISCQ 11.3.
值得注意的是,《新序·义勇》和《韩诗外传》卷七的类似用例中也用的是“尽”:用其他的客体量化词似乎是不恰当的。
下面是一个时代稍晚的用例,其中“尽”指的是“所有的客体事物(all of the object stuff)”。但是此处似乎并未明显地把其他的客体量化词如“周”或“遍”排除在外:
(114)尽散饮食飨士,令甲皆伏。(《史记·田单列传》)
He distributed all his drink and food to feed his soldiers, and he ordered all the men in arms to go into hiding.Shi Ji 82.5.
注意第二个分句中“皆”的用法。
“尽”所量化的对象甚至可以是抽象的:
(115)尽弃其学而学焉。(《孟子·滕文公上》)
He rejected the whole lot of the things he had learnt and became a follower of XuXing.Meng 3A4.
宾语还可以被省略:
(116)……尽去而后慊。(《庄子·天运》)
...and he will first be at ease when he has got rid of the whole lot of these clothes.Zhuang 14.41.
由于庄子并无意于区别猴子去除的不同衣物,所以这里使用“尽”非常合适。
显然,“尽”的管辖范围可以超过一个动宾结构:
(117)非尽亡天下之兵,而臣海内之民,必不休矣。(《战国策·魏策三》)
Unless she annihilates the whole of the armed forces of the world and makes the whole lot of the peoples of the empire her servents she will not give peace.ZGC 363(II.56).参照《史记·燕召公世家》中的例句。
在下面的例子中,“尽”和“皆”的差别非常清楚:
(118)季氏择二,二子各一,皆尽征之。(《左传·昭公五年》)
Then Ji clan two parts, the two barons one each, and they all(jie)collected revenues from the whole of(jin)their lands.Zuo Zhao 5.1.
类似例(118)这样的例子是判定“尽”是客体量化词的重要证据。而且如果这一判定是对的,那么下列句子中的“尽”就不得不去量化客体:
(119)……而上尽制之。(《韩非子·有度》)
…The superior controls all these things.HF 6(23.14).
即,君主控制一切事情,而不是“所有君主控制这些事情(all the superiors control these things)”。
(120)圣人尽随于万物之规矩。(《韩非子·解老》)
The sages follow all the laws and rules governing the 10, 000 things.HF 20(112.3).
即,圣人遵循万物的所有规律法则,而不是“所有圣人都遵循……(all the sages follow the…)”。
让我苦恼的是,在实践中很难确定究竟什么时候一个客体是可被量化的,从而确定在一个已知文本中是必须被量化的。
逻辑上,主体量化词“皆”和客体量化词“尽”之间的差别是基础。但是弄清楚不同客体量化词之间的区别也很重要。我们已经发现了“尽”和“兼”之间的明显差别,现在来看看“尽”和“遍”之间的不同。在我看来,“遍知”和“尽知”的区别就像“知道全部对象(knowing about all the objects)”和“知道对象的全部情况(knowing all about the objects)”的区别。
(121)民之情伪,尽知之矣。(《左传·僖公二十八年》)
(The Lord of Jin)knows all about people’s true nature and their false pretenses.Zuo Xi 28.5.
如果此句的意思是“他既知道真实情况也知道虚假情况,而不是只知道其中之一(he knows both the true nature on the one hand and the false pretenses on the other,not just one of these)”,我觉得我们可能就要用“兼”代替“尽”了。
(122)必尽知之。(《管子·地图》)
(The military leader)must know all about all these things.Guan 27(2.20-13).
下面的例子可以和《管子》中惯用的“遍知天下”相比较:
(123)人事者,吾已尽知之矣。(《战国策·齐策三》)
As for human affairs, I already know all about them.ZGC I.110.
人们常常倾向于把“尽”翻译成“the whole lot of the objects(全部事物)”的一个原因是出于非常明显的事实:“尽”似乎是唯一一个习惯和“杀害”“屠戮”“驱逐”义等动词共现的客体量化词。
(124)吴人往报之,尽屠其家。(《吕氏春秋·察微》)
The people of Wu went out to seek revenge and slaughtered all his family.LSCQ 16.6.
(125)臾骈之人欲尽杀贾氏。(《左传·文公六年》)
Yu Pian’s people wanted to kill all the members of the Jia(Gu?)clan.Zuo Wen 6.8.参照《左传·哀公十四年》《左传·宣公十三年》的例句。
(126)尽灭其族。(《左传·宣公十三年》)
He extinguished the whole lot of his clan.ZuoXuan 13.4.
总体看来,《左传》中包含客体量化词“尽”的句子呈现出了中国古代社会相当残酷的画面。
(127)救火者尽赏之……(《韩非子·内储说上·七术》)
If you reward the lot of those who helped with the fire...HF 30(168.16).
类似这样的句子在上古文献中相对罕见。而且这个句子如果用“兼”就会表达不同的意思,我在“尽”这一小节中引用的其他句子也是如此。但是,下面的例子中使用“尽”只是出于语言风格上的考虑:
(128)桓公兼此数节者而尽有之。(《荀子·仲尼》)
Duke Huan of Qi combined all these skills and had the lot of them.Xun 7.8.参照《荀子·强国》中的例句。
这里把众多客体看作无差别的事物是完全没有问题的。
而下面句子中的客体是他们尽可能列出的事物:
(129)今天下之士君子之书不可胜载,言语不可尽计。(《墨子·天志上》)
Now the books of the knights and gentlemen of the empire cannot be completely recounted;their speeches cannot be exhaustively counted.Mo 26.43.(“胜”受限于“不可胜VERB”这样的习语中,这是我没有把这种用法的“胜”归为量化词的原因。)
最后,很重要的一点是要认识到,在上古汉语中副词“尽”(相当于exhaustively,perfectly)和量化词“尽”(相当于the whole lot of the object)之间没有截然的区分。思考下面的例句:
(130)尽信《书》,则不如无《书》。(《孟子·尽心下》)
A:It is better to have no Shu Jing than to believe completely in it.(完全相信《尚书》,则不如没有《尚书》。)
B:It is better to have no Shu Jing than to believe in the whole of it.Meng 7B3.(相信《尚书》所讲的一切,则不如没有《尚书》。)
如果我们想要知道孟子真正的看法,A B两种解读之间的区别就很重要。在这一语境中,我倾向于选择B的解读。但重点是,A B两种解读的对立可能是一种语义模糊,而不是歧义。
不管怎样,“尽”的语法意义都不能简单地看成是其实词意义的一种功能。事实上,客体量化词“尽”和主体量化词“毕”在作实义动词时是同义的:
(131)圣王不能二十官之事,然而使二十官尽其巧、毕其能。(《吕氏春秋·勿躬》)
The sage kings were unable to do the work of the twenty officials, but they ordered the twenty officials to use all their skills and their abilities.LSCQ 17.4.
“共”显然是一个正在向量化词演变的词。与“俱”和“皆”的情况一样,“共”的一个意义似乎就是“一起(together)”,其量化用法显然由此义衍生而来。我举一些看起来几乎不含“一起”这一隐含义的例子:
(132)汤与仲虺共非之。(《墨子·非命中》)
Tang and ZhongHui all(both)disagreed with this.Mo 36.26.
考虑到上述这个例句,下面的例子似乎就没有必要校订了:
(133)故虽昔者三代暴王,桀纣幽厉之所以共抎其国家,倾覆其社稷者,此也。(《墨子·尚贤中》)
Thus the reason why even the cruel kings of the three dynasties of antiquity, Jie, Zhou, Yu and Li all lost their states and had their altars of the land and grain overturned is this.Mo 37.43.
但是,校订过的文本用“失”代替了“共”,当然是一种简易的解读(lectio facilior
)。
(134)夫天地者,古之所大也,而黄帝尧舜之所共美也。(《庄子·天道》)
Now Heaven and Earth are things that the ancients considered as great and they are things which the Yellow Emperor, Yao, and Shun all regarded as beautiful.Zhuang 13.44.
(注意,没有人认为黄帝和舜是同时代的人。)
有些文本中,“共”的用法似乎接近主体量化词:
(135)四海之内共利之之谓悦,共给之之为安。(《庄子·天地》)
To profit everyone within the Four Seas,that is his pleasure.To give them all enough,that is his peace.Zhuang 12.74.(参照成玄英的注解:夫德人惠泽弘博,遍覃群品。)
(136)居处不理,饮食不节,劳过者,病共杀之。居下而好干上,嗜欲无厌,求索不止者,刑共杀之。少以敌众,弱以侮强,忿不量力者,兵共杀之。(《韩诗外传》卷一)
“Those who residence is not taken care of,those who are immoderate in eating and drinking,those who in toil and idleness go to excess,will all of them be killed off by sickness.Those who,occupying an inferior position,like to oppose their superiors;those whose desires are insatiable;and those who seek incessantly will all of them be killed by the law.Those who with a few oppose the many,who with weakness insult the strong,who in anger do not take stock of their strength will all of them be killed in war.HSWZ 1.4.”此翻译来自海陶玮(Hightower)。显然,对相关语句逐字直译翻译可能是“...illness kills them all off...”《孔子家语·五仪解》中的相关例句
与此完全相似。克拉梅尔斯(Kramers 1950:229)
翻译为:“...sickness will kill them all...punishment will kill them all...armed force will kill them all...”还可参照《文子·符言》中的相关例句。
上古汉语中,数词和量化词的句法功能似乎很不相同。数词“两”则是这一通则的一个例外。
当“两”位于句中主语前面时,它倾向于表达“那两个(the two)”的意思,即该词指向上下文中确定的两个事物。
(1)两君就坛。(《谷梁传·定公十年》)
The two rulers proceeded to the altar.Gu liang Ding 10.3.但是请参照《慎子·逸文》中的例句。
当“两”位于宾语前面时,它倾向于只表达“两个(two)”的意思,而不一定要指向某两个确定的事物:
(2)事两君者不容。(《荀子·劝学》)
He who serves two rulers will not be accepted.Xun 1.22.参照《左传·襄公十四年》《左传·襄公三十年》《左传·昭公二十三年》。
但是当你想要用“两”指代“确定的某两个事物(the two objects)”时,也就是说如果你想表达“主语对确定的某两个事物都实施了某一行为(the subject verbed both the objects)”,“两”和其他作状语的量化词之间的相似性就会很清楚地显示出来:
(3)……二者安得无两失也。(《韩非子·制分》)
...as for the two(i.e.rewards and punishments), how can you fail to make mistakes with both of them? HF 55(368.8).
显然,在这样的上下文中,“二”和“两”不能互换。如果你对动词前的“两”能否指代客体有疑问,请看下面的用例:
(4)“吾欲两用公仲、公叔,其可乎?”
对曰:“不可。晋用六卿而国分,简公两用田成、阚止而简公杀,魏两用犀首、张仪而西河之外亡。今王两用之……”(《韩非子·说林上》)
“I want to use both Gong Zhong and Gong Shu.Would that be all right?”
Reply:“No.Jin used six chief ministers and the state was divided.Duke Jian used both Tian Cheng and Piao Zhi, and was killed.Wei used both Xi Shou and Zhang Yi, and the area outside Xi.He was lost.Now if your majesty uses both these people…”HF 22(129.1).
(注意,像“六”这样的数词明显不能用作客体量化词。)
(5)两展其足。(《庄子·盗跖》)
He stretched out both his legs.Zhuang 29.16.客体量化词“两”最常出现在客体用“之”指代的句子里:
(6)君两失之。(《左传·哀公十六年》)
Your Majesty has made both mistakes(has failed in both accounts).Zuo Ai 16.4.
(7)是两智之也。(《墨子·经说下》)
This is knowing both.Mo 43.56.参照《墨子·经下》中的例句。
(8)故儒者将使人两得之者也,墨者将使人两丧之者也。(《荀子·礼论》)
Thus the Confucians are the sort who cause people to get both.The Mohists are the sort who cause people to lose both.Xun 19.13.
和客体量化词“兼”一样,“两”后面也能出现“而”:
(9)姑尝两而进之。(《墨子·兼爱下》)
Let me just try and set out both points of view.Mo 16.23.
作为宾语的代词“之”经常被省略:
(10)不如两忘。(《庄子·大宗师》《庄子·外物》)
It is best to forget both.Zhuang 6.13 and Zhuang 26.23.
(11)义与利者,人之所两有也。(《荀子·大略》)
As for righteousness and profit, people have both these things.Xun 27.65.
当没有宾语时,“两”在极个别情况下可以用作前置的不定宾语:“两个事物(two things)”:
(12)目不能两视而明。(《荀子·劝学》)
An eye cannot look two things(at once)and see clearly.Xun 1.22.
不是“The eyes cannot look in both directions(forward and back)!”
但是多数情况下,动词前的“两”似乎都指的是两个确定的客体:
(13)有甚忧两陷而无所逃。(《庄子·外物》)
If one has strong worries, then one is trapped into both worries and pleasure and has nowhere to escape to.Zhuang 26.4.
郭象对这句话的注释和这里的理解一致:……而陷于忧乐。
要确定什么是所谓的“确定的”通常并不容易:
(14)是之谓两行。(《庄子·齐物论》)
This is called“acting out both alternatives”.Zhuang 2.40.可以参照葛瑞汉(Graham 1969:154)的翻译。
这句话说的是任何具体情境中的两个确定的选项,一个惯用的翻译是“This is called having it both ways”。
当宾语不出现时,“两”后面的动词是不是及物性的,并不一定总是清楚的:
(15)行不两全,名不两立。(《韩诗外传》卷十)
In conduct I do not fulfill both(the demands of loyalty and filial piety);as for reputation,I do not establish both(that for loyalty and that for filial piety).HSWZ 10.24.可以参照赖炎元(Lai 1973:438)和海陶玮(Hightower 1952:345)的翻译。
有人能确定这里的“全”和“立”不是不及物动词吗?
(16)圣也者,尽伦者也;王也者,尽制者也。两尽者,足以为天下极也。(《荀子·解蔽》)
The Sage is the sort of person who exhaustively knows the moral principles.The King is the sort of person who exhaustively knows the principles of political control.He who has an exhaustive command of both these things is qualified to become the supreme man in the empire.Xun 21.82.
我完整地引用这段话,是因为它把客体量化词“两”的特殊用法表现得很清楚。
通常我们很难确定出现在不带宾语的及物动词前面的“两”的具体情况,但是应当记住这种情况是边缘性的。动词前的“两”通常(虽然并非总是)用作客体量化词,其关键证据是下面这些例句:
(17)故人一之于礼义,则两得之矣;一之于情性,则两丧之矣。(《荀子·礼论》)
Therefore, if someone concentrates his efforts on propriety and righteousness, then he can achieve both(his natural and moral aims).If he concentrates on his emotions and his nature, then he will lose both.Xun 19.13.
毫无疑问,例(18)中的两个短语意思大致相同:
不过这种大致对等还是和标准客体量化词(如“专”或“悉”)的情况不存在平行性,标准的客体量化词从不出现在宾语的位置上。关于动词前的“两”,确实存在类似于倒置(inversion)或外置(extraposition)的棘手问题,还需进一步解答,而其他客体量化词则没有这种问题。