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小结

受多重因素的影响,库尔德人的起源难有定论,但长期居住于西亚库尔德斯坦地区的历史和与外隔绝的山区地理特点,让他们衍生出自身独特的语言、文化和社会体系,16—17世纪奥斯曼帝国和萨法维王朝对库尔德斯坦的争夺与瓜分,以及17—19世纪库尔德埃米尔国的自治经验,更强化了库尔德人的这些既有属性,使他们充分符合安东尼·史密斯定义下的一个“种族”所具有的基本特点。然而,这些特点从未在本质上转变为现代民族主义语境下的政治认同问题,库尔德人政治效忠的对象依旧是以血缘、地域和宗教为纽带的家族、部落和苏非教团等社会单位,而不是一个抽象的“库尔德民族”。

随着19世纪奥斯曼帝国“坦齐马特”改革集权措施对库尔德埃米尔国权益造成侵害,库尔德知识分子逐渐接触民族主义思想,以及“一战”后西方殖民势力以“民族自决”作为处理奥斯曼帝国问题的基本政治原则,部分库尔德政治与知识精英开始意识到自身的民族身份。但是,库尔德人对战后世界局势本质性变化的迟钝回应、库尔德社会内部多元分化的局面,以及英法两国为实现殖民利益的秘密协议,让作为一个“种族”的库尔德人,被划分到土耳其、伊朗、伊拉克和叙利亚,成为四国境内的少数民族。库尔德人在《色佛尔条约》中享有的“民族自决”权与未能建国现实之间的差距,催生出现代库尔德问题。但是,受各自所在国国情差异的结构性影响,库尔德问题的内涵也从诞生之初宽泛的“无国民族”属性,被逐步内化至四国现代国家的框架之下,发展出内政问题的属性,并依国别衍生出四种不同的演变路径。因此,库尔德问题是一个现代问题。从缘起上看,它是“一战”后奥斯曼帝国解体和英法两帝国人为划定中东民族国家版图的结果;而从历史发展的角度来看,它同样也是四国中央政府在现代民族国家建构进程中对库尔德人政策选择的结果。


[1] Mahir A.Aziz, The Kurds of Iraq Nationalism and Identity in Iraqi Kurdistan ,London:I.B.Tauris,2011,p.55.

[2] David McDowall, A Modern History of the Kurds ,London:I.B.Tauris,1996,p.9.

[3] Muḥammad Amīn Zakī, Khulāṣat Tārīkh al - Kurd wa Kurdistān Min Aqdam al -‘ Uṣūr al - Tārīkhiyyah ḥattā al - Āna ,Naqalahu ilā al-‘Arabiyyah Muḥammad ‘Alī ‘Awnī,Baghdād:Dār al-Shu'ūn al-Thaqāfiyyat al-‘Āmmah,2005,p.88.

[4] David McDowall, A Modern History of the Kurds ,London:I.B.Tauris,1996,p.9.

[5] Muḥammad Suhayl Ṭaqqūsh, Tārīkh al - Akrād 637-2015 ),Bayrūt:Dār al-Nafā'is li al-Ṭibā‘ah wa al-Nashr wa al-Tawzī‘,2015,p.17.

[6] Muḥammad Suhayl Ṭaqqūsh, Tārīkh al - Akrād 637-2015 ),Bayrūt:Dār al-Nafā'is li al-Ṭibā‘ah wa al-Nashr wa al-Tawzī‘,2015,pp.17-18.

[7] Muḥammad Suhayl Ṭaqqūsh, Tārīkh al - Akrād 637-2015 ),Bayrūt:Dār al-Nafā'is li al-Ṭibā‘ah wa al-Nashr wa al-Tawzī‘,2015,p.17.

[8] Edmund Ghareeb and Beth Dougherty, Historical Dictionary of Iraq ,Lanham:Scarecrow Press,2004,pp.141-142.

[9] Abdul Rahman Ghassemlou, Kurdistan and the Kurds ,Prague:Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences,1965,p.35.

[10] Ofra Bengio, The Kurds of Iraq Building a State within a State ,London:Lynne Rienner Publishers,2012,pp.1-2.

[11] Muḥammad Suhayl Ṭaqqūsh, Tārīkh al - Akrād 637-2015 ),Bayrūt:Dār al-Nafā'is li al-Ṭibā‘ah wa al-Nashr wa al-Tawzī‘,2015,p.16.

[12] Muḥammad Suhayl Ṭaqqūsh, Tārīkh al - Akrād 637-2015 ),Bayrūt:Dār al-Nafā'is li al-Ṭibā‘ah wa al-Nashr wa al-Tawzī‘,2015,p.15.

[13] Abdul Rahman Ghassemlou, Kurdistan and the Kurds ,Prague:Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences,1965,p.34.

[14] Muḥammad Amīn Zakī, Khulāṣat Tārīkh al - Kurd wa Kurdistān Min Aqdam al -‘ Uṣūr al - Tārīkhiyyah ḥattā al - Āna ,Naqalahu ilā al-‘Arabiyyah Muḥammad ‘Alī ‘Awnī,Baghdād:Dār al-Shu'ūn al-Thaqāfiyyat al-‘Āmmah,2005,pp.63-64.

[15] Jalāl Ṭālabānī, Kurdistān wa al - Ḥarakat al - Qawmiyyat al - Kurdiyyah ,Bayrūt:Dār al-Ṭalī‘ah,1971,pp.38-39.

[16] Maria O'Shea,“Tying Down the Territory:Conceptions and Misconceptions of Early Kurdish History,”in Faleh A.Jabar and Hosham Dawod,eds., The Kurds Nationalism and Politics ,London:Saqi,2006,p.126.

[17] Ofra Bengio, The Kurds of Iraq Building a State within a State ,London:Lynne Rienner Publishers,2012,p.2.

[18] Kerim Yildiz, The Kurds in Iraq The Past Present and Future ,London:Pluto Press,2007,p.7.

[19] Ofra Bengio, The Kurds of Iraq Building a State within a State ,London:Lynne Rienner Publishers,2012,p.2.

[20] Abdul Rahman Ghassemlou, Kurdistan and the Kurds ,Prague:Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences,1965,p.14.

[21] Abdul Rahman Ghassemlou, Kurdistan and the Kurds ,Prague:Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences,1965,p.13.

[22] Michael M.Gunter, Historical Dictionary of the Kurds ,Lanham:The Scarecrow Press,2011,p.3.

[23] Abdul Rahman Ghassemlou, Kurdistan and the Kurds ,Prague:Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences,1965,p.17.

[24] David McDowall, A Modern History of the Kurds ,London:I.B.Tauris,1996,p.6.

[25] Michael M.Gunter, The Kurds Ascending The Evolving Solution to the Kurdish Problem in Iraq and Turkey ,New York:Palgrave Macmillan,2008,p.2.

[26] 既有研究指出在埃及、巴勒斯坦、叙利亚和海湾阿拉伯国家都有库尔德人群体存在,但并未提供具体的数据,海湾国家如科威特和巴林虽有相关数据,但统计年代较早(20世纪90年代初),故未被收录于此。可参见Muḥammad ‘Alī al-Ṣuwayrikī, Tārīkh al - Akrād fī Bilād al - Shām wa Miṣr ,‘Ammān:Maṭba‘at al-Safīr,2010;‘Abd al-Jalīl Ṣāliḥ Mūsā, Jamāl Abd al - Nāṣir wa al - Qaḍiyyat al - Kurdiyyah fī al -‘ Irāq 1952-1970 ,Duhūk:Maṭba‘at Muḥāfaẓat Duhūk,2013;Jāsim Yūnus al-Ḥarīrī,“Al-Dawr al-Khalījī fī al-Milaff al-Kurdī fī al-‘Irāq ba‘da 2003,” Majallat al - Mustaqbal al -‘ Arabī ,Vol.1,No.465,2017;Kim Murphy,“Kurds in Kuwait Also Are Treated Harshly:Ethnic Conflict:Many Have Been Prevented from Returning to Their Jobs,and Some Have Disappeared,” Los Angeles Times ,April 11,1991,https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1991-04-11-mn-321-story.html。

[27] Muḥammad ‘Alī al-Ṣuwayrikī, Tārīkh al - Akrād fī Bilād al - Shām wa Miṣr ,‘Ammān:Maṭba‘at al-Safīr,2010,p.43.

[28] Muḥammad ‘Alī al-Ṣuwayrikī, Tārīkh al - Akrād fī Bilād al - Shām wa Miṣr ,‘Ammān:Maṭba‘at al-Safīr,2010,p.165.

[29] Salwā Abū Shaqrā,“Mā Huwa al-‘Ā'iq alladhī Ya‘tariḍal-Akrād fī Lubnān,” Al - Nahār ,March 21,2016.

[30] “Diaspora Kurde,” Institut Kurde de Paris ,https://web.archive.org/web/20171220182421/http://www.institutkurde.org/kurdorama/.

[31] 哈萨克斯坦数据参见https://stat.gov.kz/getImg?id=ESTAT306055;吉尔吉斯斯坦数据参见National Statistical Committee of the Kyrgyz Republic, Population and Housing Census of the Kyrgyz Republic of 2009 ,2009,p.52;土库曼斯坦数据参见Итоги всеобщей переписи населения Туркменистана по национальному составу в 1995 году,http://asgabat.net/turkmenistan/itogi-vseobschei-perepisi-naselenija-turkmenistana-po-nacionalnomu-sostavu-v-1995-godu.html;乌兹别克斯坦数据参见Всесоюзная перепись населения 1989 года.Национальный состав населения по республикам СССР,http://demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/sng_nac_89.php?reg=;塔吉克斯坦数据参见http://stat.tj/en/img/526b8592e834fcaaccec26a22965ea2b_1355502192.pdf。

[32] Michael M.Gunter, Historical Dictionary of the Kurds ,Lanham:The Scarecrow Press,2011,p.4;“Proportion of mother tongue responses for various regions in Canada,2016 Census,” Statistics Canada ,August 31,2017,https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2016/dp-pd/dv-vd/lang/index-eng.cfm.

[33] Muḥammad Suhayl Ṭaqqūsh, Tārīkh al - Akrād 637-2015 ),Bayrūt:Dār al-Nafā'is li al-Ṭibā‘ah wa al-Nashr wa al-Tawzī‘,2015,p.33.

[34] Muḥammad Suhayl Ṭaqqūsh, Tārīkh al - Akrād 637-2015 ),Bayrūt:Dār al-Nafā'is li al-Ṭibā‘ah wa al-Nashr wa al-Tawzī‘,2015,p.37.

[35] Muḥammad Suhayl Ṭaqqūsh, Tārīkh al - Akrād 637-2015 ),Bayrūt:Dār al-Nafā'is li al-Ṭibā‘ah wa al-Nashr wa al-Tawzī‘,2015,pp.38-39.

[36] Muḥammad Suhayl Ṭaqqūsh, Tārīkh al - Akrād 637-2015 ),Bayrūt:Dār al-Nafā'is li al-Ṭibā‘ah wa al-Nashr wa al-Tawzī‘,2015,p.90.

[37] Mahir A.Aziz, The Kurds of Iraq Nationalism and Identity in Iraqi Kurdistan ,London:I.B.Tauris,2011,p.55.

[38] Amir Hassanpour, Nationalism and Language in Kurdistan 1918-1985,San Francisco:Mellen Research University Press,1992,pp.55-56.

[39] Sa‘d Bashīr Iskandar, Qiyām al-Niẓām al-Imārātī fī Kurdistān wa Suqūṭuh:Mā bayna Muntaṣaf al-Qarn al-‘Āshir wa Muntaṣaf al-Qarn al-Tāsi‘ ‘Ashar ,Baghdād:Dār al-Shu'ūn al-Thaqāfiyyat al-‘Āmmah,2005,pp.278-298.

[40] “麦赫赞”也可译为“马赫增”,为阿拉伯语单词al-makhzan,是阿拉伯语动词khazana的地点名词,原意为“存放物品之地”“仓库”或“储藏室”。该词最早在北非地区的使用可以追溯到公元8世纪,用其指代阿拉伯穆斯林军队征服过程中用于装放赋税和金银制战利品的铁箱。装点完毕后,这些铁箱会被送回阿拔斯王朝首府巴格达,承担押送护卫任务的军人则被称为“麦赫赞之奴”(‘abīd al-makhzan)。公元10世纪后,阿拔斯王朝中央权威衰落,帝国东西领土分离,摩洛哥开始陆续出现一系列建立在部落联盟基础上的地方性王朝,传统的央地赋税关系被削弱乃至断裂,“麦赫赞之奴”效忠辅佐的对象从帝国哈里发转向摩洛哥地方王朝的素丹(sulṭān),其职能也随之从单一的护卫角色,被提升至征收赋税、参与统治的军队将领,因此带有负面意义的前缀“奴隶”一词,也被剥离出“麦赫赞之奴”的表达,代之以“麦赫赞”相称。随着穆拉比特王朝、穆瓦希德王朝和马林王朝等摩洛哥地方王朝不断的建制化,“麦赫赞”不再仅限于指代负责征伐纳税的军人,而泛指所有为摩洛哥王朝素丹效忠服务的人。“麦赫赞之地”因此指的是中央权力所能有效控制和管辖的领土范围。相关细节可参见Muḥammad Jādūr, Mu ' assasat al - Makhzan fī Tārīkh al - Maghrib ,Al-Dār al-Bayḍā':Mu'assasat ‘Abd al-‘Azīz,2009,pp.42-45。

[41] “希巴”为阿拉伯语单词al-sībah,词源为阿拉伯语动词sāba,意为“放任”“遗弃”或“忽视”,也可表示水的流动和流走。“希巴之地”因此指“放任自流的地区”或“遭到遗弃的地区”,延伸指“麦赫赞权力所无法实际控制和征税的偏远地区”。相关细节可参见Muḥammad Jādūr, Mu ' assasat al - Makhzan fī Tārīkh al - Maghrib ,Al-Dār al-Bayḍā':Mu'assasat ‘Abd al-‘Azīz,2009,pp.42-45。

[42] 宗派归属感(al-‘aṣabiyyah)一词由阿拉伯历史哲学家伊本·赫勒敦提出,是指游牧或野蛮民族在共同的血缘和信仰纽带基础上建立的群体内部认同和团结精神。他认为,宗派归属感构成了人类早期国家的权力来源和基础。更多论述可参见Gerhard Böwering ed., The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought ,Princeton:Princeton University Press,2013,pp.53-54。

[43] Muḥammad ‘Ābid al-Jābirī, Al -‘ Aql al - Siyāsī al -‘ Arabī Muḥaddadātuh wa Tajalliyyātuh ,Al-Markaz al-Thaqāfī al-‘Arabī,Al-Dār al-Bayḍā':Dār al-Nashr al-Maghribiyyah,1990,p.367.

[44] Mūsā Makhūl, Al - Akrād Min al -‘ Ashīrah ilā al - Dawlah ,Bayrūt:Bīsān li al-Nashr wa al-Tawzī‘ wa al-I‘lām,2013,pp.50-51.

[45] Hussein Tahiri, The Structure of Kurdish Society and the Struggle for a Kurdish State ,Costa Mesa:Mazda Publishers,2007,pp.24-25.

[46] John Middleton and David Tait,“Introduction,”in John Middleton and David Tait,eds., Tribes without Rulers Studies in African Segmentary Systems ,London:Routledge,1958,p.4.

[47] Richard Tapper,“Introduction,”in Richard Tapper ed., The Conflict of Tribe and State in Iran and Afghanistan ,New York:St.Martin's Press,1983,p.10.

[48] Ernest Gellner,“The Tribal Society and Its Enemies,” in Richard Tapper ed., The Conflict of Tribe and State in Iran and Afghanistan ,New York:St.Martin's Press,1983,p.10.

[49] Gerard Chaliand, The Kurdish Tragedy ,London and New Jersey:Zed,1992,p.19.

[50] Hussein Tahiri, The Structure of Kurdish Society and the Struggle for a Kurdish State ,Costa Mesa:Mazda Publishers,2007,p.21.

[51] Mehrdad R.Izady, The Kurds A Concise Handbook ,London:Routledge,1992,p.192.

[52] Hussein Tahiri, The Structure of Kurdish Society and the Struggle for a Kurdish State ,Costa Mesa:Mazda Publishers,2007,p.24.

[53] Martin Van Bruinessen,“Tribes and Ethnic Identity”,in Faleh A.Jabar and Renad Mansour,eds., The Kurds in a Changing Middle East:History,Politics and Representation ,London:I.B.Tauris,2019,p.151.

[54] Martin Van Bruinessen,“Tribes and Ethnic Identity”,in Faleh A.Jabar and Renad Mansour,eds., The Kurds in a Changing Middle East:History,Politics and Representation ,London:I.B.Tauris,2019,p.152.

[55] Mūsā Makhūl, Al - Akrād Min al -‘ Ashīrah ilā al - Dawlah ,Bayrūt:Bīsān li al-Nashr wa al-Tawzī‘ wa al-I‘lām,2013,pp.82-84.

[56] Muḥammad al-Māzūnī,“Waẓā'if al-Zāwiyat al-Maghribiyyah,” Mawqi Bawwābat Tārīkh al - Maghrib ,November 15,2012,http://www.maroc-histoire.net/2015/05/blog-post_77.html.

[57] Muḥammad Suhayl Ṭaqqūsh, Tārīkh al - Akrād 637-2015 ),Bayrūt:Dār al-Nafā'is li al-Ṭibā‘ah wa al-Nashr wa al-Tawzī‘,2015,p.110;Martin Van Bruinessen, Agha Shaikh and State The Social and Political Structures of Kurdistan ,London:Zed Books,1992,pp.224-234.

[58] Martin Van Bruinessen,“Tribes and Ethnic Identity,”in Faleh A.Jabar and Renad Mansour,eds., The Kurds in a Changing Middle East:History,Politics and Representation ,London:I.B.Tauris,2019,p.154.

[59] Martin Van Bruinessen,“Tribes and Ethnic Identity,”in Faleh A.Jabar and Renad Mansour,eds., The Kurds in a Changing Middle East:History,Politics and Representation ,London:I.B.Tauris,2019,pp.156-157.

[60] Michael M.Gunter, Historical Dictionary of the Kurds ,Lanham:The Scarecrow Press,2011,p.194.

[61] Abdul Rahman Ghassemlou, Kurdistan and the Kurds ,Prague:Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences,1965,p.27.

[62] Michael M.Gunter, Historical Dictionary of the Kurds ,Lanham:The Scarecrow Press,2011,p.278.

[63] Abdul Rahman Ghassemlou, Kurdistan and the Kurds ,Prague:Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences,1965,p.27.

[64] Michael M.Gunter, Historical Dictionary of the Kurds ,Lanham:The Scarecrow Press,2011,p.194.

[65] David McDowall, A Modern History of the Kurds ,London:I.B.Tauris,1996,p.10.

[66] Michael M.Gunter, Historical Dictionary of the Kurds ,Lanham:The Scarecrow Press,2011,p.194.

[67] Gareth R.V.Stansfield, Iraqi Kurdistan Political Development and Emergent Democracy ,London:Routledge,2003,p.38.

[68] Aḥmad Tāj al-Dīn, Al - Akrād Tārīkh Sha b wa Qaḍiyyat Waṭan ,Al-Qāhirah:Al-Dār al-Thaqāfiyyah li al-Nashr,2001,p.58.

[69] Aram Rafaat,“Kurdish Islam and Kurdish Integration into the State of Iraq,” The Journal of Social Political and Economic Studies ,Vol.37,No.1,2012,p.33.

[70] Mūsā Makhūl, Al - Akrād Min al -‘ Ashīrah ilā al - Dawlah ,Bayrūt:Bīsān li al-Nashr wa al-Tawzī‘ wa al-I‘lām,2013,p.76.

[71] Aḥmad Maḥmūd al-Khalīl, Tārīkh al - Kurd fī al -‘ Uhūd al - Islāmiyyah ,Bayrūt:Dār al-Sāqī,2013,p.87.

[72] Mūsā Makhūl, Al - Akrād Min al -‘ Ashīrah ilā al - Dawlah ,Bayrūt:Bīsān li al-Nashr wa al-Tawzī‘ wa al-I‘lām,2013,p.77.

[73] David McDowall, A Modern History of the Kurds ,London:I.B.Tauris,1996,p.10.

[74] David McDowall, A Modern History of the Kurds ,London:I.B.Tauris,1996,p.11.

[75] Gareth R.V.Stansfield, Iraqi Kurdistan Political Development and Emergent Democracy ,London:Routledge,2003,p.39.

[76] Martin Van Bruinessen, Agha Shaikh and State The Social and Political Structures of Kurdistan ,London:Zed Books,1992,p.24.

[77] Ṣalāḥ al-Khurasān, Al - Tayyārāt al - Siyāsiyyah fī Kurdistān al -‘ Irāq Qirā ' ah fī Milaffāt al - Ḥarakāt wa al - Aḥzāb al - Kurdiyyah fī al -‘ Irāq 1946-2001 ),Bayrūt:Mu'assasat al-Balāgh li al-Ṭibā‘ah wa al-Nashr wa al-Tawzī‘,2001,pp.17-18.

[78] Ṣalāḥ al-Khurasān, Al - Tayyārāt al - Siyāsiyyah fī Kurdistān al -‘ Irāq Qirā ' ah fī Milaffāt al - Ḥarakāt wa al - Aḥzāb al - Kurdiyyah fī al -‘ Irāq 1946-2001 ),Bayrūt:Mu'assasat al-Balāgh li al-Ṭibā‘ah wa al-Nashr wa al-Tawzī‘,2001,p.18.

[79] Mahir A.Aziz, The Kurds of Iraq Nationalism and Identity in Iraqi Kurdistan ,London:I.B.Tauris,2011,pp.60-62.

[80] Mahir A.Aziz, The Kurds of Iraq Nationalism and Identity in Iraqi Kurdistan ,London:I.B.Tauris,2011,p.60.

[81] Anwar Anaid,“Learning from History:Kurdish Nationalism and State-building Efforts,”in Alex Danilovich ed., Iraqi Kurdistan in Middle Eastern Politics ,London and New York:Routledge,2017,p.17.

[82] Mahir A.Aziz, The Kurds of Iraq Nationalism and Identity in Iraqi Kurdistan ,London:I.B.Tauris,2011,pp.49-53.

[83] Mahir A.Aziz, The Kurds of Iraq Nationalism and Identity in Iraqi Kurdistan ,London:I.B.Tauris,2011,p.61.

[84] Faleh A.Jabar,“New and Old Dynamics in the Construction of Kurdish Nationhood-Some Reflections,” in Faleh A.Jabar and Renad Mansour,eds., The Kurds in a Changing Middle East History Politics and Representation ,London:I.B.Tauris,2019,p.22.

[85] Aram Rafaat, The Kurds in Post Invasion Iraq The Myth of Rebuilding the Iraqi State ,Saarbrücken:Lap Lambert Academic Publishing,2012,p.16.

[86] David McDowall, A Modern History of the Kurds ,London:I.B.Tauris,1996,p.158.

[87] Abdul Rahman Ghassemlou, Kurdistan and the Kurds ,Prague:Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences,1965,p.63.

[88] David McDowall, The Kurds A Nation Denied ,London:Minority Rights Publication,1992,p.82.

[89] 参见Charles Tripp, A History of Iraq ,Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,2007,pp.91-97。

[90] Majid Khadurri, Republican Iraq ,London:Oxford University Press,1969,pp.1-10.

[91] Jalāl Ṭālabānī, Kurdistān wa al - Ḥarakat al - Qawmiyyat al - Kurdiyyah ,Bayrūt:Dār al-Ṭalī‘ah,1971,pp.112-114.

[92] Edmund Ghareeb, The Kurdish Question in Iraq ,Syracuse:Syracuse University Press,1981,p.31.

[93] Idmūn Gharīb, Al - Ḥarakat al - Qawmiyyat al - Kurdiyyah ,Bayrūt:Dār al-Nahār li al-Nashr,1973,p.10.

[94] Gareth R.V.Stansfield, Iraqi Kurdistan Political Development and Emergent Democracy ,London:Routledge,2003,p.65.

[95] Ḥāmid Maḥmūd ‘Īsā, Al-Qaḍiyyat al-Kurdiyyah fī al-‘Irāq:Min al-Iḥtilāl al-Birīṭānī ilā al-Ghazw al-Amrīkī 1914-2004 ),Al-Qāhirah:Maktabat Madbūlī,2005,p.149.

[96] Edmund Ghareeb, The Kurdish Question in Iraq ,Syracuse:Syracuse University Press,1981,p.39.

[97] Anwar Anaid,“Learning from History:Kurdish Nationalism and State-building Efforts,” in Alex Danilovich ed., Iraqi Kurdistan in Middle Eastern Politics ,London and New York:Routledge,2017,p.17.

[98] Marianna Charountaki, The Kurds and US Foreign Policy International Relations in the Middle East since 1945,London and New York:Routledge,2010,p.118. ahm8yJP3ZZnBgHB6XAZeysylLjh4aydf09DEcw7AZ0e5Fmy5mtVAH+0Zx/G6OmRC

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