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结论

搞清了混合吸食鸦片与烟草方法在中国传播的时间和情况之后,便可以纠正一些误解。例如,明代戏曲作家汤显祖(1550—1616)有一首题名为《香山验香所采香口号》小诗。诗文曰:“不绝如丝戏海龙,大鱼春涨吐芙蓉。千金一片浑闲事,愿得为云护九重。”徐朔方在《文史》第12期发表《汤显祖与利玛窦》一文,认为汤显祖诗中的“芙蓉”就是“鸦片”,诗文是讥讽明神宗吸食“鸦片烟”,进而说:“汤显祖的这首小诗带有敏锐的时代感,可以说不亚于龚自珍在鸦片战争前夕所写的那首同题材的七绝《己亥杂诗·津梁条约遍南东》。”这是一种严重误解。“芙蓉”不是鸦片。“鸦片”是英语Opium的译音。鸦片在中国又叫“阿芙蓉”,或“合浦融”,是阿拉伯语Afyun的音译。而“芙蓉”是荷花的别称,或者是木芙蓉。如前所说,混合吸食鸦片与烟草的方法大约在18世纪初期才传入中国,而汤显祖卒于万历四十四年(1616),万历皇帝死于万历四十七年(1619),显然,他们二人谁也不了解“鸦片烟”是怎么一回事。万历皇帝与鸦片有染,如前所说是吞服鸦片。吞服鸦片药丸在中国由来已久,“吞服”与“吸食”两种服用鸦片方法不同,不能混淆。万历皇帝不曾吸食“鸦片烟”,汤显祖更不可能写诗予以讥讽,徐朔方的有关推论自然是站不住脚的。

这里需要说明的是,《鸦片战争》第一册摘选的《曾羽王日记》中的一段话经常引起人们的误解。“余幼时,闻有鸦片烟之名,然未见有吸之者,止福建人吸之。余年三十六而遭鼎革,始于青村王继维把总衙内见有人吸此,以为目所亲睹也。” 这段话通常被用来说明中国早期吸食鸦片烟的情况。笔者找到《曾羽王日记》进行核对,结果发现原来日记的这段话并无“鸦片”二字。既然没有“鸦片”二字,这一资料只能用于说明烟草传播情况,而不能作为“鸦片烟”传播的证据。

还需要说明的是,禁止鸦片入口的时间。很多书中认为中国禁止鸦片输入的时间应该从1729年起,即雍正七年朝廷颁布禁止制造、贩卖和吸食“鸦片烟”条例。实际上这是一种误解。确切地说,禁止制造、贩卖和吸食“鸦片烟”(烟草与鸦片混合品)始于1729年,而禁止鸦片输入的时间则应从1799年开始。雍正、乾隆时期虽然明文规定禁止制造、贩卖和吸食“鸦片烟”,但并没有真正认识到鸦片的危害,所以,海关一直把鸦片作为合法的商品进行征税。


[1] Ferdinand Keller, The Lake Dwellings of Switzerland and Other Parts of Europe ,London:Longmans,Green and Company,1866;Manuel Góngoray y Martínez, Antig ü edades Prehist ó ricas de Andalucía Monumentos Inscripciones Armas Utensilios y otros Importantes Objetos Pertenecientes a los Tiempos M á s Remotos de su Poblaci ó n ,Madrid:Real Academia de la Historia,2007 [1868];Carmen Cacho Quesada et al.,“La Cestería Decorada de la Cueva de los Murciélagos (Albuñol,Granada),” Complutum 6,no.1 (1996),pp.105-122.

[2] Mordechai E.Kislev,Anat Hartmann,and Ehud Galili,“Archaeobotanical and Archaeoentomological Evidence from a Well at Atlit-Yam Indicates Colder,More Humid Climate on the Israeli Coast during the PPNC Period,” Journal of Archaeological Science 31,no.9 (2004),pp.1301-1310.

[3] Mark D.Merlin, On The Trail of the Ancient Opium Poppy ,Rutherford:Fairleigh Dickinson University Press,1984;Jürgen Schultze-Motel,“Die Urgeschichtlichen Reste des Schlafmohns ( Papaver somniferum L.) und die Entstehung der Art,” Die Kulturpflanze 27,no.2 (1979,pp.207-215;Corrie C.Bakels,“Der Mohn,Die Linearbandkeramik und das westliche Mittelmeergebiet,” Archäologisches Körrespondenzblatt 12 (1982),pp.11-13;Corrie C.Bakels,“Fruits and Seeds from the Linearbandkeramik Settlement at Meindling,Germany,with Special Reference to Papaver somniferum,” Analecta Praehistorica Leidensia 25 (1996),pp.55-68.

[4] Aurélie Salavert,“Le pavot (Papaver somniferum) à la fin du 6e millénaire av.J.-C.en Europe occidentale,” Anthropobotanica 1,no.3 (2010),pp.3-6.

[5] For specific references see Ferrán Antolín,Stefanie Jacomet,and Ramón Buxó,“The Hard Knock Life:Archaeobotanical Data on Farming Practices during the Neolithic (5400-2300 cal BC) in the NE of the Iberian Peninsula,” Journal of Archaeological Science 61 (2015),pp.90-104.

[6] Gill Campbell and Mark Robinson,“Environment and Land Use in the Valley Bottom,” in The Raunds Area Project A Neolithic and Bronze Age Landscape in Northamptonshire ,ed.Jan Harding and Frances Healy,Swindon:English Heritage,pp.18-36;Hans-Peter Stika and Andreas G.Heiss,“Plant Cultivation in the Bronze Age,” in The Oxford Handbook of the European Bronze Age ,ed.Harry Fokkens and Anthony Harding,Oxford:Oxford University Press,pp.348-369.

[7] Keller, The Lake Dwellings of Switzerland ,pp.341-343.

[8] Góngoray Martínez, Antig ü edades Prehist ó ricas de Andalucía ,55,Author's translation,emphasis added.

[9] Jordi Juan-Tresserras and María Josefa Villalba,“Consumo de Adormidera ( Papaver somniferum L.) en el Neolítico Peninsular:El Enterramiento M28 del Complejo Minero de Can Tintorer,” in Actes del II Congrés del Neolític a la Península Ibèrica Saguntum - PLAV ,Extra-2 (1999),pp.397-404.

[10] Hermanfrid Schubart,“Estudios sobre la Tumba 111 de Fuente Álamo (Almeria),” Spal 15 (2006),pp.103-148.

[11] Saber Gabra,“Papaver Species and Opium through the Ages,” Bulletin de l ' Institut d ' Egypte 37,no.1 (1956),pp.39-56;P.G.Kritikos and S.P.Papadaki,“The History of the Poppy and of Opium and Their Expansion in Antiquity in the Eastern Mediterranean Area,” Bulletin on Narcotics 19,no.3 (1967),pp.17-38;P.G.Kritikos and S.P.Papadaki,“The History of the Poppy and of Opium and Their Expansion in Antiquity in the Eastern Mediterranean Area,” Bulletin on Narcotics 19,no.4 (1967),pp.5-10;Merlin, On The Trail of the Ancient Opium ;Helen Askitopoulou,Ioanna A.Ramoutsaki and Eleni Konsolaki,“Archaeological Evidence on the Use of Opium in the Minoan World,” International Congress Series 1242 (2002),pp.23-29.

[12] Spyridon Marinatos,“Ai Minoikai Theai tou Gadsi,” Archaoilogike Ephemeris ,pp.278-291.[In Greek.]

[13] Robert.S.Merrillees,“Opium Trade in the Bronze Age Levant,” Antiquity 36 (1962),pp.287-292;N.G.Bisset,J.G.Bruhn,and M.H.Zenk,“The Presence of Opium in a 3,500 Year Old Cypriote Base-Ring Juglet,” Ägypten und Levante 6 (1996),pp.203-204;Klaus Koschel,“Opium Alkaloids in a Cypriote Base Ring I Vessel (Bilbil) of the Middle Bronze Age from Egypt,” Ägypten und Levante 6 (1996),pp.159-166;Robert S.Merrillees, The Cypriote Bronze Age Pottery Found in Egypt (Lund:Paul Åströms Förlag,1968);Rachel Katherine Smith,“Novel Applications of Mass Spectrometry to Organic Residues in Archaeology”,PhD diss.,University of York,2015;Zuzana Chovanec,Shlomo Bunimovitz,and Zvi Lederman,“Is There Opium Here?Analysis of Cypriot Base Ring Juglets from Tel Beth-Shemesh,Israel,” Mediterranean Archaeology and Archaeometry 15,no.2 (2015),pp.175-189.

[14] Shlomo Bunimovitz and Zvi Lederman,“Opium or Oil?Late Bronze Age Cypriot Base Ring Juglets and International Trade Revisited,” Antiquity 90,354 (2016),pp.1552-1561.

[15] Taha Baasher,“The Use of Drugs in the Islamic World,” British Journal of Addiction , 76,no.3 (1981),pp.233-243.On the medicine-drug divide as a modern construct,see David Herzberg,White Market Drugs: Big Pharma and the Hidden History of Addiction in America ,Chicago:The University of Chicago Press,2020,pp.10-12.

[16] Mehrdad Kia,Daily Life in the Ottoman Empire,Santa Barbara,CA:Greenwood,2011,p.245;Heghnar Zeitlian Watenpaugh,“Deviant Dervishes:Space,Gender,and the Construction of Antinomian Piety in Ottoman Aleppo,” International Journal of Middle East Studies 37,no.4 (2005),pp.535-565.

[17] Edited by Paul Gootenberg, The Oxford Handbook of Global Drug History ,Oxford University Press Oxford University Press 2022,p.187.

[18] Stephen Snelders, Drug Smuggler Nation Narcotics and the Netherlands ,1920-1995,Manchester University Press,2021,p.54.

[19] Edited by Paul Gootenberg, The Oxford Handbook of Global Drug History ,Oxford University Press Oxford University Press 2022,p.301.

[20] Matthee, The Pursuit , p.212.

[21] Cristina Belgiojoso, Harems Hashish and Holy Men Amazon Digital Services , Inc.,[1858] 2012),Chap.54,Kindle Edition. gXKKv0Mg1cTx9Cgd99rDm8GhHPaTgyLfsrwK8ehn76sTPqk0jvzgg3oWfGTO1Tok

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