3.1 The Talmyan Spatial Conceptualization

Now，we introduce the spatial conceptualization of the theoretical framework，which particularly relates to conceptualization processes of spatial adpositions in the elicited data．

3.1.1 Conceptualization of Spatial Adpositions

The conceptualization of spatial adpositions mainly involves the fundamental spatial schematic system of language（Talmy，2005：199－234） ，which combines spatial cognitive systems（mainly the CSs of perception）with linguistic spatial representation system．Talmy argues that this system has three main parts：the componential，the compositional，and the augmentive．

In the componential part，there is a relatively closed inventory of fundamental spatial elements which can be combined to form individual whole spatial schemas．This small number of fundamental spatial elements are usually a few spatial distinctions that can be marked in a fundamental spatial category（cf.Talmy，2005）．The Talmyan inventory is hypothesized as being universally available（cf.Talmy，2000a，2003，2005，2010a，2010b）．He terms this type of semantic universals as an inventory universal in his Universals of Semantics （cf.Talmy，2010b）．The fundamental spatial elements being an inventory universal is one of the hypotheses that will be tested in the two major languages of English and Chinese in Chapter 5， by analyzing the conceptualization of spatial adpositions in the two languages．And we attempt to demonstrate that this inventory does exist in the two languages．Besides，the study also intends to manifest the knowledge underlying the representation of space in language，especially the relations between spatial language and spatial perception．And more than one modality（Talmy，2015）are investigated in this study，such as the modalities of vision and somesthetic sensibility．

The spatial concepts in FSSS are shown in Table 2－Table 3（cf.Talmy，2005，2010a：82－139）．Talmy enumerates 17 fundamental spatial categories in his 2005 paper and computes other 3 fundamental spatial categories in his 2010 book．The newly added ones are：object identity，relative magnitude and accessibility．Consequently，there are 20 spatial categories altogether，containing more than 50 fundamental spatial elements．The 20 categories can be classified into four types contingent on the content they represent，as shown in Table 4．

A．Category pertaining to scene segmentation

This class of category pertaining to scene segmentation contains only one fundamental spatial category of major scene component，which possesses three spatial elements：the Figure，the Ground，and perhaps the Secondary Reference Object or SRO in short．

B． Categories pertaining to characteristics of individual spatial scene components

According to Talmy some spatial schematic categories pertain to the characteristics of an individual spatial scene component．Each includes a small number of spatial schematic elements．The ten spatial categories related are：dimensionality，number，motive state，state of boundedness，state of consolidation，state of directedness，geometry type，phase of matter，objects identity and intrinsic parts．

C．Categories pertaining to relations that one scene component can have to another

Several spatial categories that relate one scene component with another are given by Talmy（2005，2010a）． The related categories are： degree of remove， relative orientation，relative magnitude，contour or shape，and degree of dispersion．

D．Non-geometric categories

Spoken language has several non-geometric categories，which are not geometric，but can also be perceived through other cognitive modalities like tactile sensation，reasoning，judgement and affection．Except for one category related to affection，they are related to space，but are not easy to identify solely by visual perception．Such categories include force dynamics，accessibility，cognitive／affective state，and relative priority．

Above all，the four groups of spatial categories form the foundation of the spatial conceptualization for stationary events．Particularly，they will be adopted to analyze the conceptualization processes of the spatial adpositions in the English and Chinese data．In the compositional part，a group of selected spatial elements from the inventory are combined in particular arrangements to constitute a whole spatial adpositional schema．Each such whole schema that a spatial adposition represents contains a“prepackaged”（Talmy，2005：200） group of certain basic spatial elements in a particular organization，as demonstrated by the analysis of the English sentence The bottle is standing up in the basket （P1902E）in（3.1）．Lexicon in each language has a relatively closed set of prepackaged schemas，the number of which is larger than that of spatial closed-class forms，because of polysemy（Talmy，2005）．These Talmyan spatial elements are usually selected to compose closed-class form schemas which are adopted to depict a spatial scene（Talmy，2005：200）．Chapter 5 will also test this second hypothesis by analyzing the adpositional schemas in the English and Chinese data．

（3.1）The bottle is standing up in the basket．（P1902E）

a．An F＝the bottle

b．A G＝the basket

c．The F is a set of zero dimensional points：an element of the category of“dimensionality”．vs．The rope is on the edge，lying over the basket．（P3502E）

d．The G is a three dimensional volume：an element of the category of“dimensionality”．vs．The rope is on the edge，lying over the basket．（P3502E）

e．The G is bounded：an element of the“boundedness”category．vs．Lying on the ground．（P1603E）

f．The G suggests a relatively compact relationship with the figure：an element of“state of consolidation”category．vs．The man is sitting next to the fire．（B3801E）

g．The F is located in a part of the G：the coincidence（with contact） is an element of“the degree of remove”category．vs．（The bottles are）on top of the table．（P1504E）

h．The F is smaller than the G： an element of“the degree of magnitude”category．vs．The rope is across the tree trunk． ^[1] （P0702E）

The augmentive part pertains to individual whole schemas of the same spatial adposition．These prepackaged whole schemas exhibit several types of generalization（Talmy，2005）．Consequently，a schema can include a property which permits the schema to cover a whole family of schemas，or it can yield certain non-basic forms by extending or deforming the basic forms． Such generalizations of schemas are an indispensable part of the whole spatial schematic system which allows the relatively smaller number of spatial schemas to represent a greater range of spatial scenes．This is the third hypothesis that Chapter 5 will test．

It is a fact that linguistically，these spatial schemas correspond to and are actually prepackaged，activated and entrenched by specific closed-class forms in languages．Nevertheless，they can also be used innovatively and extended to further spatial scenes following certain extension rules，which include the extendability in distinct dimensions and across motive states（cf.Talmy，2005）．

For spatial adposition schemas，the componential part，compositional part and augmentive part together constitute the deep semantic structure of the surface form．Chapter 5 intends to demonstrate that the Talmyan fundamental spatial schematic system of languages（Talmy， 2005，2010a） is the underlying mechanism of spatial adposition conceptualization in both English and Chinese．Nevertheless，this system is not a single modality one，but involves several modalities（cf.Chapter 5）．

Based on the Talmyan fundamental spatial schematic system of languages，data from the elicitation experiments are analyzed in this study．For instance，the English spatial prepositional schema on in The lamp lay on the table at least involves a set of fundamental spatial elements：the figure，the ground，a secondary reference object（the Earth which produces gravity），zero and two dimensions，boundedness，compact state of consolidation，parallel or perpendicular relative orientation respectively to a line and a plane，basic directedness，the rectilinear geometric type of the Earth vertical line，the solid matter phase of the ground object，the intrinsic part of the top of the ground object，the adjacency remove degree，the presence of force dynamics，the straight contour of the fictive motion of the force，and the perpendicular relative orientation of the force with the horizon，and so on，as shown in（3.2）．But other fundamental spatial categories，such as motive state，cognitive／affective state，relative priority，seem to be neutral with the English spatial prepositional schema on in the above sentence．

（3.2）The lamp lay on the table．

a．Figure：the lamp（the major scene component category）．

b．Ground：the table（the major scene component category）．

c．Secondary reference object：the Earth which produces gravity（the major scene component category）．

d．The zero dimension（a point） of the figure（the dimensionality category）：The lamp lay on the table．vs．The table cloth lay over the table．

e．The two dimensions（a plane）of the ground：The lamp lay on the table．vs．The lamp is inside the box．

f．There is only one figure and one ground（the number category）．vs．The peas are spread over the table．／The lamp is between the two tables．

g．The point figure is bounded（the bounded state category）．vs．The sands are spread over the table．

h．The figure object can be found exactly laid on the surface of the ground object（being compact， a member of the consolidation state category）．vs．The lamp is near the table．

i．There is a point O on the surface of the ground，the line from which to the figure is parallel to the vertical line of the Earth grid（Talmy，2005） and perpendicular with the table surface（the relative orientation category）．vs．The credit card is in the desk．

j．The supporting force（the force dynamics category） between the point O and the figure object is along the direction of the vertical line（being directed，a member of the directed state category）of the Earth surface（a secondary reference object，the major components of a scene category）．vs．The lamp is under the table．／The lamp is standing beside the table．／The lamp is near the table（in a space shuttle）．

k．The contour of the Earth's vertical line is rectilinear（the geometric type category）．vs．An arc of lamps are installed around the lake．

l．The ground is solid（the matter phase category）．vs．The turkey is put over the fire．

m．The figure is on the top of the ground（the intrinsic parts category）．vs．The lamp is to the left of the table．

n．The figure is adjacent to and contacts the ground（the category of the remove degree）vs．The lamp is over the table．

o．Gravity of the figure is overcome by the ground（the force dynamics category）．vs．The hydrogen balloon is hanging above the table．

p．The fictive path of the gravity force is straight（the category of contour）．vs．The light is refracted into the water．

q．The perpendicular of the gravity with respect to the horizon（the category of relative orientation）．vs．The flood carried her forward．

3.1.2 Perception in the Spatial Conceptualization

All these spatial elements are the results of perceiving and conceptualizing processes involving overlapping cognitive systems （cf.Talmy， 2015； Lampert，2013）．The cognitive systems involved in spatial conceptualization processes include all the following：chemical，tactile，visual，and auditory perceptions，motor control，affect，forward simulation inferencing，language，gesture，story，music，and dance（Talmy，2015）．If the metaphorical extension is also included，another factor may also be related，which is culture．All related cognitive systems of spatial concepts related to stationary events are generalized as a heuristic overlapping systems of cognition organization，as shown in Figure 2．

In this chapter we mainly discuss spatial language and the perception system．In these cognitive systems in Figure 2，all the first six cognitive systems are perceptive．The chemical cognitive system includes both modalities of the smell and the taste（personal communication with Prof．Lampert Günther of Mainz University）．Then the visual，the auditory，and the motor control and the affect cognitive systems are all grouped into perception in this study．And the forward inferencing cognitive system in this study is an inferencing starting from our perception，so it is also discussed as a related cognitive system．Besides，the most concentrated level of investigation in this chapter is language，because our purpose is to illustrate the conceptualization processes of spatial adpositions．We hope to determine the relationship between spatial language and spatial perception．The cognitive systems that will be investigated in this study is shown in Figure 3.They are the CSs evolved earlier than the cognitive system of language（except for language itself）．The focus here is the relations between the cognitive system of spatial language and the cognitive systems of spatial perception．The related cognitive systems are shown in Figure 3.Thus，the cognitive systems of gesture，culture，story（conceptions connected in a temporal pattern），music，and dance will not be discussed here，which are simply weakly involved in this study．This means that mainly the perceptive cognitive systems and language are investigated in this study．

In both Figure 2 and Figure 3，the spatial categories are the ones that are found to be fundamental in the schematic system of spoken language（cf.Talmy，2005）．Since the cognitive system of perception here involves several modalities，such as chemical，tactile，visual，auditory，and motor control，these distinct modalities are marked as separate cognitive systems in Figure 2 and Figure 3.The two figures are a bit complicated．This is because the cognitive system in our mind is similarly complicated．They are not more complicated than the things in our mind and are just as complicated as the things in our mind（Gisborne，2020）．Therefore，they demonstrate the reality of our cognitive representation and are thus correct．

In the following，I will provide the basic cognitive systems，from which Figure 2 and Figure 3 are derived：

（3.3）The Talmyan heuristic list of major cognitive systems

i．Earliest systems to evolve

Perception in general or in its modalities：chemical，tactile，visual，auditory，etc．

Motor control

ii．Later evolving systems

Affect

Forward simulation

Inferencing

iii．Most recently evolving systems in the human lineage

Language

Gesture

Culture

Story（conceptions connected in a temporal pattern）

Music

Dance

（From Talmy，2015）

The two figures are simply tentative descriptions of the overlapping systems involving in perceiving and conceptualizing of spatial stationary events．They are based upon the Talmyan heuristic list of major cognitive systems involving in the overlapping systems of cognition organization（Talmy，2015），as shown in（3.3）．In（3.3），these cognitive systems are listed according to an evolving order．These cognitive systems become the source of the cognitive systems related to the spatial stationary events in both English and Chinese．According to Talmy（2015），there are six cognitive systems which have evolved in the lineage of human but not in other primate species． They are the last six cognitive systems oflanguage，gesture，culture，story，music and dance．It is mainly these six cognitive systems that determine the distinction of human from other primates（Talmy，2015）．Besides，these six systems co-evolved in human cognition．They form specialized high cognitive levels for humans．Figure 2 demonstrates the relations of all these systems with the fundamental spatial categories．

So altogether，eight cognitive systems（CSs）are involved in the perceiving and conceptualizing of spatial scenes in this study，as shown in Figure 3，the first four of which obviously belong to perception in general．Several frequently mentioned perceptive cognitive systems are respectively included．To illustrate it，taste and smell are covered by chemical cognitive system in general，and somesthetic sensibility can be covered by the cognitive systems of chemical，tactile and motor control．

Except for spatial perception （Talmy，2000a）， the four CSs of chemical，tactile，visual，and auditory modalities are most frequently used and thus worth of being discussed．First of all，the tactile CS and the visual CS obviously are the most frequent CSs for us to recognize spatial features．We can feel the shape of an object simply by touching it．And our visual perception provides us with the richest spatial information．Then，the CS of the chemical cognitive system can sometimes be involved in the perceiving of certain spatial categories and spatial elements．For chemical cognitive system，it has the smell．For example，we can determine the distance or the position of some kind of cosmetics by the smell it gives off．This means the smell cognitive system can help us in spatial perception．The sense of the smell involves chemical substance，so，together with the sense of the taste，it can be grouped into the chemical cognitive system （Talmy，2015），as is shown in（3.3）．

And finally，another cognitive system is the auditory one．It also has something related to space．For example，if we are in a room and want to judge the change of the distance of a helicopter which flies past near our building every day，we can make it simply by identifying its sound change．When the plane is coming nearer and nearer，its sound becomes louder and louder．But when it leaves farther and farther，its sound turns weaker and weaker until it disappears，which indicates that it has left us rather far away．So the sound sometimes can be used to determine certain spatial features，such as the change of spatial distance as mentioned above．These four modalities，together with the CSs of motor control，affect，forward inferencing and language，can possibly cover most of the CSs adopted in the perceiving and conceptualization of space．So in this study，the analyses of spatial perception and spatial representation are mainly centered on those cognitive systems mentioned above．

From Figure 3，it is clear that for each fundamental spatial categories，usually more than one cognitive system is activated，and for some spatial categories，for instance，the one of the major components of a scene or of the accessibility，nearly all the cognitive systems can be involved．And overlapping systems of cognition organization may indeed function in the perceiving and conceptualizing of fundamental spatial categories and fundamental spatial elements． Talmy（2000a） and Talmy（2015） have shed light on many aspects of language-vision overlap in the configurational structure of space．This indicates the fact that our spatial conceptualization is closely related to our cognitive systems．

3.1.3 Deep Organization

Motion-aspect formula（Talmy，1972，2000a）refers to a deep organization of a stationary event expression．It connects a fundamental spatial schematic system with a Talmyan stationary event，as shown in（3.4－3.6）．（3.4） is the motion-aspect formula of the English spatial preposition schema on ，and（3.5）is the motion-aspect formula of an English SE sentence． Those two can be embedded together and consequently form a complete formula，as shown in（3.6）．The forms in the formulas are assumed to be the deep morphemes［or bathic morphemes（Talmy，1972：14－15）］or midlevel morphemes（Talmy，2000b：252）of the surface morphemes（or vadic morphemes，Talmy，1972：14－15）in the sentences．

（3.4）TO a point which is on the surface of［a volume］＝on［a volume］．

（3.5）［the lamp WASLOC on the table］ WITH-THE-MANNER-OF［the lamp lay there］＝The lamp lay on the table．（3.4－3.5，cf.Talmy，2000b：55，29）

（3.6）［the lamp WASLOC ［TO a point which is on the surface of］the table］WITH-THE-MANNER-OF［the lamp lay there］＝The lamp lay on the table．

Talmy says，

In analysis of this conjunction，a certain small set of primitive Motion aspect formulas —ones that seem to underlie all more complex characterizations of stasis and movement in association with aspectual structure in language—appears to emerge universally．（Talmy，2000a：215）

So，stationary event expressions can be derived from motion-aspect formulas．An overall representation process is demonstrated in Figure 4.From the Figure，these formulas are the interface between a spatial situation and an SE sentence．As can be seen，the observer first segments the spatial scene into two or three major components（including SROs），he analyzes the spatial relation between the major components to establish a spatial schema，integrates it into a motion-aspect formula，and finally this formula is represented by a linguistic expression through a mapping process．

[1] In this sentence，the English spatial schema across requires that the width of the ground object be less than or equal to the length of the figure object，i.e.，the diameter of the tree trunk． 76wjd5OV43GGsefDBsDofIxe4RWJE8a5lXC52ZfsyYnV4/I8rFfMDWW74GIFI9Am