正是因为在翻译中无法实现完全的对应,也没必要实现完全的对应,所以汉英翻译中另一大母体性的翻译方法就是转换。到目前为止,我们认为在翻译转换研究方面,卡特福德(Catford)对翻译中转换的界定和分类都是最为系统的。
卡特福德(1965)在其专著《翻译的语言学理论》(A Linguistic Theory of Translation)中提出了翻译转换(translation shifts)的理论。“翻译转换”就是指翻译过程中发生的语言的改变。卡特福德(1965:73)将“翻译转换”界定为“从原语到目标语翻译过程中在形式对应层面上的偏离”。就翻译而言,卡特福德(1965)区分出了形式对应(formal correspondence)和文本等值(textual equivalence)两个重要概念。“形式对应”是语言系统层面上的概念,指涉的范围更广,即指目标语中的任何范畴(语言单位、语法成分、结构成分等)在目标语系统中占有的地位与其对应的原语中的范畴在原语中占有的地位尽可能相似,如英语中的名词“belongings”与西班牙语中的“efectos personales [personal effects]”;“文本等值”则主要指具体的“原语-目标语”语言对等,即指在具体语境下目标语的一个文本或文本的一部分与原语的一个文本或文本的一部分是等值的,如“he searched through my belongings”在翻译为西班牙语时被译为了“examinó mi bolso [he examined my bag]”。在翻译过程中,当“形式对应”和“文本等值”两个情形中的概念偏离时,就发生了“翻译转换”,如上面所说的“ efectos personales ”与“ bolso ”。
对于翻译转换的类型,卡特福德(1965)指出主要有两类:其一,层级转换(level shift),主要指的是在一种语言中用语法表示的概念,在另一种语言中则用词汇表示出来,如英语中的时、体等在中文中用词汇表示出来;其二,范畴转换(category shift)。范畴转换又可再分为四类:一是结构转换(structural shift),指的主要是语法结构的转换,如英语中“主语代词+动词+直接宾语”的结构“I like jazz”译为西班牙语时转换为了“间接宾语代词+动词+主语”的结构“me gusta el jazz”。这是翻译转换中常用的一类转换。二是词类转换(class shift),指的是译文用不同于原语的词类来进行翻译,如英语中的“a medical student”译为法语时转换为了“un étudiant en médecine”,英语中前置的形容词“medical”被译为了法语中后置的副词性修饰语“ en médecine”。三是等级转换(rank shift),指的是原语和目标语在语言纵向上的句、小句、短语、词、词素等不同层级单位上的转换。四是系统内转换(intra-system shift),指的是原语和目标语虽具有较为相似的系统,但翻译时还需选择一个不对应的成分。例如,法语和英语在“数”和“冠词”系统方面类似,但英语的“数”和“冠词”和法语的“数”和“冠词”并不总是对应的,如英语中的“advice”是不可数名词,但在译为法语时需转换为可数名词“des conseils (复数)”;法语中“ Il a la jambe cassée [he has the leg broken]”的定冠词“la”译为英语时转换为了不定冠词“a”,即“he has a broken leg”。整体而言,卡特福德(1965)认为,在翻译转换中,层级转换占少数,范畴转换占多数。卡特福德(1965)的翻译转换系统如图1 - 1所示。
图1-1 卡特福德的翻译转换系统
下面,我们以卡特福德(1965)提出的翻译转换系统来分析汉译英中的转换问题。我们先看层级转换。根据卡特福德(1965)的观点,层级转换指的是原语中的语法内容在目标语中需用词汇表达出来。这种转换对英译汉来说是适合的,但对于汉译英来说则是相反的过程,即中文中的词汇内容需转换为英语中的语法内容,因为英语的形式性语法强,汉语的形式性语法弱。因此,在汉译英实践中,汉语中用词汇表达的语法内容往往就需要通过层级转换译为英语中形式性强的语法内容,这种层级转换主要体现在以下四个方面:时、体、态、数。
在时、体方面,汉语无形式化的语法,但英语有形式化的语法。因此,在汉译英中,需进行时、体方面的层级转换。
十八大以来的五年,是党和国家发展进程中极不平凡的五年。
(《习近平谈治国理政》)
The five years since the 18th National Congress have been a truly remarkable five years in the course of the development of the Party and the country.
(The Governance of China)
在此句中,“是”不能直接译为“is”,因为原文中的时间范围是“十八大以来的五年”,描述的是一个从过去的时间点一直持续到现在的时间范围,在英语中应用现在完成时的语法形式来翻译,所以将“是”译为了“have been”。
海洋对于人类社会生存和发展具有重要意义。海洋孕育了生命、联通了世界、促进了发展。
(《习近平谈治国理政》)
The ocean is of great significance to the survival and development of human society. It gave birth to life, connects the world, and facilitates development.
( The Governance of China)
在原文中,“孕育了”“联通了”“促进了”是三个并列的动作。但在英语译文中,“孕育了”用的是过去时,“联通了”和“促进了”用的是一般现在时,原因就是:“孕育了”发生在过去,必须使用过去时。
我把信取来一看,心里就突突的跳了几跳,原来我前回寄去的一篇德文短篇的译稿,已经在某杂志上发表了,信中寄来的是五圆钱的一张汇票。
(《春风沉醉的晚上》,郁达夫)
When I got the letter my heart began to thump. One of my translations of German short stories had been accepted by a magazine, and I had got a money order for five dollars.
(Nights of Spring Fever,唐笙译)
在此句中,“已经在某杂志上发表了”表示已经完成的动作。英语译文中用语法的表现形式进行了层级转换,使用过去完成时,译为了“had been accepted”。
中国的现代化建设刚起步,也许到本世纪末可以看到比较显著的进步,真正的进步要到下个世纪的三十至五十年。
(《邓小平文选》)
We have only just begun the modernization drive. We shall probably have made considerable progress by the end of the century and even more notable progress 30 or 50 years after that.
(Selected Works of Deng Xiaoping)
这段文字摘自1986年10月18日邓小平同志会见美籍华裔学者李政道教授夫妇和意大利学者齐吉基教授夫妇时的谈话。因此,这是从1986年看20世纪末要实现的目标,所以英语译文中用的是将来完成时,即“shall ... have made”。
英语常用语法被动态,少用意义被动态;汉语常用意义被动态,少用语法被动态。换言之,在汉语中,表达被动意义时往往不用被动语态的语法标记,但在英语中表达被动意义时一般要求使用语法标记。此外,在汉语中使用被字句时往往带有语义色彩,一般表示不幸或不如意的事,如“我被领导批评了一顿”。因此,汉译英时,需要进行被动语态的层级转换。
中央政治局集体学习,指中共中央政治局定期学习制度。由中共中央总书记主持并发表讲话,中央政治局全体成员参加,邀请有关部门负责人、专家学者,就经济、政治、历史、文化、社会、科技、军事、外交等问题进行专题讲解。
(《习近平谈治国理政》)
The Political Bureau of the CPC Central Committee holds regular study sessions. The sessions are presided over and addressed by the general secretary of the Central Committee, and attended by all members of the Political Bureau. Leaders of relevant departments, experts and scholars are invited to lecture on economics, political science, history, culture, social affairs, science and technology, military and international affairs.
(The Governance of China)
在此例中,中文原文中没有一个“被”字,但在英语译文中有三个地方出现了被动语态“are presided over and addressed by”“attended by”“are invited”。这一段主要是对“中央政治局集体学习”这一名词术语的界定和阐释,因此选“study sessions”做英语句子的主语更能聚焦这一主题,也有利于句子整体的统一性,避免句子内主语的频繁更替(general secretary、members、leaders)。正是因为英语句子的主语选择了宾语性成分,所以后面的三个动词就需使用被动语态的形式。
所有行政审批事项都要简化程序,明确时限,用政府权力的“减法”,换取市场活力的“乘法”。
(《2015年政府工作报告》)
Procedures and processes must be simplified and time frames must be clarified for all items requiring administrative review, and cuts to government power will be made to boost market vitality.
(Report on the Work of the Government, 2015)
与例1-22同理,中文原文中没有一个“被”字,但英语译文中有三处使用了被动语态:“be simplified”“be clarified”“be made”。
到一九九七年还有十三年,从现在起要逐步解决好过渡时期问题。在过渡时期中,一是不要出现大的波动、大的曲折,保持香港繁荣和稳定;二是要创造条件,使香港人能顺利地接管政府。香港各界人士要为此作出努力。
(《邓小平文选》)
There are 13 years left until 1997. We should start working now to gradually bring about a smooth transition. First, major fluctuations or setbacks must be avoided, and the prosperity and stability of Hong Kong must be maintained. Second, conditions must be created for a smooth take-over of the government by Hong Kong residents. I hope that people of all walks of life in Hong Kong will work towards this end.
(Selected Works of Deng Xiaoping)
在中文中,经常会使用无主语句。此例的中文原文就是一句无主句。英语译文中,第一句话添加了主语“we”,译为了主动句。但后面一句话中则将中文原文中的宾语转换为主语,使用了被动语态,增强了句子的客观性和无条件性。
在语法上,英语中的名词有可数与不可数之分,有单数与复数之分。同时,在英语中,名词的使用往往和冠词的使用紧密结合在一起。在使用英语的过程中,使用每一个名词时都要考虑是否需要使用冠词以及使用哪个冠词,因冠词是汉语中没有的词类。所以,汉译英实践中,需注意名词的数的层级转换。
对借外债要作具体分析。有些国家借了很多外债,不能说都是失败的,有得有失。他们由经济落后的国家很快达到了中等发达国家的水平。
(《邓小平文选》)
As for foreign loans, we should make a concrete analysis of the question. Some countries have borrowed large amounts of foreign funds. This cannot be regarded solely as a loss; they have gained from it too, rapidly growing from economically backward countries into moderately developed ones.
(Selected Works of Deng Xiaoping)
解析“作具体分析”不能译为“make concrete analysis”,因“analysis”是可数名词的单数形式,汉译英时需进行层级转换,添加不定冠词。“外债”译为“foreign loans”或“foreign funds”,都使用了复数的语法形式,因一个国家所借的外债往往不止一种,所以需用复数。“失败”在此句话中译为了“loss”,发生了转换,因为要和后文的“gain”对应使用。一旦选择了“loss”,就要注意其单复数之别,借外债这种做法在此用代词“this”指代,因此“loss”需用单数形式,必须添加不定冠词“a”。
总之,今年的经济情况不错,比预料的还好。我们的改革是有希望的。
(《邓小平文选》)
In short, this year's economic situation is good, better than we anticipated. The prospects are bright for our reform.
(Selected Works of Deng Xiaoping)
在此例中,“希望”译为了“prospect”,需转换为复数形式“prospects”。“prospect”既可作单数使用,也可作复数使用。作单数使用时,“prospect”表示的是“将要发生的事(a particular prospect is something that you expect or know is going to happen)”,如:“There was a mixed reaction to the prospect of having new neighbours. (对于将要有新邻居这件事有多种不同的反应)。”作复数使用时,“prospect”才表示“希望”或“前景”,如:“The prospects for peace in the country's eight-year civil war are becoming brighter (.在该国的八年内战中,和平的前景正变得越来越光明)。”
要综合运用货币政策工具,维护流动性基本稳定,合理引导市场利率水平,疏通传导机制,促进金融资源更多流向实体经济,特别是支持“三农”和小微企业。
(《2017年政府工作报告》)
We will apply a full range of monetary policy instruments, maintain basic stability in liquidity, see that market interest rates remain at an appropriate level, and improve the transmission mechanism of monetary policy. We will encourage a greater flow of financial resources into the real economy, particularly in support of agriculture, rural areas, and farmers, and small and micro businesses.
(Report on the Work of the Government, 2017)
解析“综合运用货币政策工具”隐含着“会使用多种货币政策工具”的意思,因此英译时“工具”就要用复数形式“instruments”。“金融资源”一般也包含多种资源,所以英译用“financial resources”。“小微企业”在这里指的是全国亿万家小企业,因此理应用复数形式“small and micro businesses”。这些复数形式在中文原文中均没有体现出来,英译时需进行层级转换,以符合英语的语法要求。
由于中文和英文在数的语法范畴方面存在较大差异,汉译英时对数的语法范畴的解读有时也会有差异。下面是李煜的《虞美人 · 春花秋月何时了》这首宋词的两个不同版本的英译。
春花秋月何时了,往事知多少。小楼昨夜又东风,故国不堪回首月明中。
雕栏玉砌应犹在,只是朱颜改。问君能有几多愁?恰似一江春水向东流。
① The Emperor's Lament
The fair spring flowers,
The autumn moons,
When will they cease to be?
The vanished past,
How much of it
Is wrapped in memory?
Last night the East wind shook
My roof again;
And I,
Beneath the moon,
Recalled
My hapless kingdom in the South.
The graven parapet,
The terrace of pale jade
Should still be there;
But all the carmine cheeks
Are changed.
You ask,
How much of sorrow is there left
Within my heart?
And I reply
A spring-tide river full
Of water, flowing East.
(The Herald Wind: Translations of Sung Dynasty Poems, Lyrics and Songs, Clara Candlin译)
② Yü mei jen
Spring flowers, autumn moon, when will they end?
Of what once was, what's left?
Upstairs last night there was an east wind
Unbearable, in bright moonlight, to look back.
Carved railings, jade walkways, should be there still;
Only youth has gone.
How much more sorrow is to come?
It is a river, fed by spring rain, flowing east.
(Beyond Spring: Tz'u Poems of the Sung Dynasty, Julie Landau译)
我们看到,在这两则英文译文中,译者对数的层级转换的处理各不相同。例如,对于“春花秋月”,英国译者甘淋(Clara Candlin)译为了“the fair spring flowers, the autumn moons”,都采用了复数,而美国译者兰道(Julie Landau)将“春花”译为了复数“spring flowers”,但将“秋月”译为了单数“autumn moon”。“三春花开,中秋月圆”,勾起了作为阶下囚的词人对往昔美好生活的无限追思,今昔对比,无比惆怅。甘淋将“秋月”译为复数,表达出原文中岁月不断更替、苦难无限的含义,突出了自然永恒与人生无常的强烈对比。对于“东风”,甘淋译为了“the East wind”,使用了定冠词“the”;而兰道则添加了不定冠词“an”,将其译为“an east wind”。对于“雕栏玉砌”,甘淋译为了单数“the graven parapet, the terrace of pale jade”,指代故国华丽的宫殿;而兰道译为了复数“carved railings, jade walkways”,强调宫殿内具体的雕栏玉砌。
结构转换指的是语法结构的转换。由于英汉语言属于不同的语系,二者语法结构差异巨大,因此汉译英时结构转换较常用。
当前,世界多极化、经济全球化、文化多样化、社会信息化深入发展,人类社会充满希望。同时,国际形势的不稳定性不确定性更加突出,人类面临的全球性挑战更加严峻,需要世界各国齐心协力、共同应对。
(《习近平谈治国理政》)
The world today is moving towards multi-polarity and becoming more economically globalized, culturally diverse, and IT-driven. All this offers hope to humanity. In contrast, however, instability and uncertainties are mounting, and the global challenges faced by humanity are ever more daunting, calling for joint responses from all countries.
(The Governance of China)
中文原文共两句话,呈并列关系(“同时”)。但在英语译文中,“同时”前后两部分的语法关系转换为了转折关系(“in contrast, however”)。在中文原文中,“需要”本是谓语动词,但在英语译文中转换为了非谓语动词形式,即“calling for”。在中文原文中,“人类社会充满希望”本是第一句话的一部分,但在英语译文中则单独译成一个独立句,这主要是因为话题发生了变化,在英语中需另起一句;此外,该句的主语也由“人类社会”转换为了“all this”,以便与上文承接。因此,整体来说,此段话的英语译文与中文原文发生了较大幅度的结构转换。
草原的白天,若在无人的旷野或深山长途走单骑,只要手握套马杆,不管男女老少,就如手持腾格里的神符一样,可以在狼的天下通行无阻。
(《狼图腾》,姜戎)
During daylight hours, a lone rider out in the wilds or up in the mountains - man, woman, old, or young - can travel undisturbed if he holds a lasso pole, almost as if it were a safe-passage tally given by Tengger.
(Wolf Totem, Howard Goldblatt译)
在语法结构方面,英语译文取消了第一个假设关系“若”,没有翻译。对于第二个条件关系,英语译文将结果部分转换到了条件部分之前。中文原文中的“就如手持腾格里的神符一样”用作前置状语,但在英语译文中转换为了后置状语。可见,这句话在英译过程中也发生了较大幅度的结构转换。
词类转换指的是原文中的词语在译入目的语时发生了词性转换。与英语相比较,汉语动态性更强,因此一般来说,汉译英时,汉语中的动词常常需转换为英语中静态性的名词、形容词、介词等。
在肯定成绩的同时,我们也清醒看到面临的问题和挑战。
(《2022年政府工作报告》)
While recognizing our achievements, we are also very clear about the problems and challenges before us.
(Report on the Work of the Government, 2022)
在此例中,原文中的动词性短语“清醒看到”在英语译文中转换为了形容词性短语“be clear about”;动词“面临”转换为了介词“before”。两处分别将汉语的动态性表达转换为了英语中的静态性形容词或介词表达。
奶奶披着夹袄,送他们到村头。余司令说:“立住吧。”奶奶就立住了。
(《红高粱家族》,莫言)
Grandma, a padded jacket over her shoulders, saw them to the edge of the village. “Stop here,” Commander Yu ordered her. She stopped.
(Red Sorghum , Howard Goldblatt译)
中文原文中的动词“披着”“到”,在英语译文中分别译为了介词“over”“to”。在许多情况下,这种动词向静态性的名词、形容词、介词等的转换并不是绝对的,而是反映出一种语言使用的倾向性,有一个度的问题,即与英语相比较而言,汉语动态性更强,译者需要根据上下文语境、具体文本的体裁以及翻译目的等需要来决定是否进行转换。
当有殿头官喝道:“有事出班早奏,无事卷帘退朝。”只见班部丛中,宰相赵哲、参政文彦博出班奏曰:“目今京师瘟疫盛行,民不聊生,伤损军民甚多。伏望陛下释罪宽恩,省刑薄税,以禳天灾,救济万民。”天子听奏,急敕翰林院随即草诏:一面降赦天下罪囚,应有民间税赋悉皆赦免;一面命在京宫观寺院,修设好事禳灾。
(《水浒传》,施耐庵)
① The officials discussed the situation in the Council Chamber and when the Emperor gave audience they all entered the Grand Audience Hall where they all kowtowed together. The appointed minister asked what business there was to bring before the Emperor, and the Prime Minister Chao Che, and the State Chancellor Wen Yen-po stopped forward. The former spoke, “Just now there is a serious pestilence in this Capital, and a great many people have died. I request that in your benevolence an edict be issued pardoning all criminals, reducing all sentences for future crimes, and lessening all taxes. We also beg Your Majesty to offer prayers to Heaven to save the lives of your people.” The Emperor at once agreed to this, and added to the edict that in all temples there should be special prayers to Heaven to stop this great calamity.
(The Water Margin: Outlaws of the Marsh, J. H. Jackson译)
② After the officials had made their obeisances, the chief of ceremonies cried:“If anyone has a petition, let him come forward. If there are none, this court will adjourn.”
Zhao Zhe, the Premier, and Wen Yanbo, his deputy, advanced and said: “The plague is raging unabated in the capital. Victims among the soldiers and the people are many. We hope Your Majesty, in a forgiving and benevolent spirit, will reduce prison sentences and cut taxes, and pray to Heaven that the people be relived of this affliction.”
The emperor at once ordered the Hanlin Academy to draw an edict proclaiming a general amnesty for all prisoners and canceling all taxes. He also directed that every temple and monastery in the capital offer prayers for a termination of the disaster.
(Outlaws of the Marsh, Sidney Shapiro译)
③ Then the master of ceremonies shouted: “If there are matters to report stand forth and declare them; if not, take leave and depart.” Accordingly the Prime Minister, Zhao Zhe, and the Chief Counsellor, Wen Yanbo stepped forward and said: “Your Imperial Majesty, a fearful plague is raging in the capital at the present time. There have been many losses among your subjects, both civil and military. We beseech Your Majesty, of your graciousness, to vouchsafe pardon to transgressors, to relax punishments and reduce taxes, and to offer up prayers and sacrifices for the avoidance of heaven-sent disasters and the delivery of all your people.” The Son of Heaven, on hearing this petition, instructed the Imperial Academy to prepare forthwith an edict proclaiming the remission of prison sentences throughout the empire and the total abolition of general taxes and levies, and at the same time ordering all Buddhist temples and Taoist monasteries in the capital to perform the appropriate rites for the prevention of natural disasters.
(The Marshes of Mount Liang, John and Alex Dent-Young译)
通过对比《水浒传》这一片段的三版译文可以看到,从杰克逊(J. H. Jackson)、沙博理到登特-杨父子(John and Alex Dent-Young)的译文,呈名词化逐步增强的趋势。随着名词化的增强,译文也显得越来越正式,故事的节奏也随之放缓。
当然,也有相反的情况。有时,在汉译英实践中,也需将一些名词转换为动词,但这是少数情况。
绿色是生命的象征,是大自然的底色。
(《中国关键词:生态文明篇》)
英语译文Green symbolizes life and nature.
( Keywords to Understand China: On Eco-civilization)
在此例中,两个名词“象征”“底色”译为了动词“symbolize”,将具有相近意义的两个名词译为一个动词,使得译文更加简洁连贯。
清气在下,则生飧泄;浊气在上,则生䐜胀。
(《黄帝内经·素问》)
①[If] Qingqi (Lucid-Qi)descends, it will cause Sunxie (diarrhea with undigested food in it). [If] Zhuoqi (Turbid-Qi)ascends, it will cause abdominal flatulence [or distension].
(Yellow Emperor's Canon of Medicine,李照国译)
②When clear qi is in the lower [regions of the body], then this generates outflow of [undigested] food. When turbid qi is in the upper [regions], then this generates bloating.
(Huang Di Nei Jing Su Wen, Paul U. Unschuld&Hermann Tessenow译)
③If the clear yang qi descends instead of rising, problems such as diarrhea occur in the body. If the turbid yin qi becomes stuck at the top and fails to descend, there will be fullness and distension in the head.
(Huang Ti Nei Ching Su Wen, Ilza Veith译)
在此例中,三位译者在处理“在下”与“在上”两个介词性短语的英译时采取了不同的方式。李照国分别译为了动词“descends”“ascends”;文树德(Paul U. Unschuld)与田和曼(Hermann Tessenow)的译文则与原文基本一致,也译为了介词性短语“in the lower”“in the upper”;维茨(Ilza Veith)将“在下”译为了动词“descends”,但将“在上”译为了表变化的状态动词短语“becomes stuck at the top and fails to descend”,进行了内涵阐释。
在其他词类方面,因为在汉语中副词一般位于动词的前面,而在英语中副词一般位于谓语动词的后面,所以汉译英中存在着副词向其他词类转换的问题,如副词向形容词的转换、副词向介词短语的转换、副词向动词的转换。
因为英语中存在“动词+名词”形式的动词短语,汉译英时常把汉语中的动词译为“动词+名词”短语,所以汉语中修饰动词的副词也被转换为了修饰名词的形容词。
二是扎实推进节能减排、生态建设和环境保护。
(《2011年政府工作报告》)
Second, we made genuine progress in energy conservation, emissions reduction, ecological improvement and environmental protection.
(Report on the Work of the Government, 2011)
在中文原文中,“扎实”作动词“推进”的状语,是副词,但在英语译文中转换为了形容词“genuine”。这主要是因为“推进”译为了“make progress”,有了名词“progress”,就可以用形容词“genuine”修饰。
稳步推进医药卫生事业改革发展。
(《2010年政府工作报告》)
We made steady progress in the reform and development of the pharmaceutical and healthcare fields.
( Report on the Work of the Government, 2010)
同例1-36,此例中,“推进”前的副词“稳步”在英语译文中也转换为了形容词“steady”,用以修饰“made progress”中的名词“progress”。
我们冷静地分析了中国的现实,总结了经验,肯定了从建国到一九七八年三十年的成绩很大,但做的事情不能说都是成功的。
(《邓小平文选》)
We made a sober analysis of conditions in China and summed up our experience. We reaffirmed the great achievements scored in the 30 years from the founding of new China from 1949 through 1978, but that didn't mean that everything we had done was successful.
(Selected Works of Deng Xiaoping)
在此例中,中文原文中的副词“冷静地”在英语译文中被转换为了形容词“sober”,用于修饰词组“made an analysis of”中的名词“analysis”。
要充分发挥传统媒体和新兴媒体的作用,广泛宣传资源环境国情和环境保护法律法规。
(《中国关键词:生态文明篇》)
Traditional media and new media will be given full play in helping the public learn about China's true conditions of natural resources and relevant laws and regulations on environmental protection.
(Keywords to Understand China: On Eco-Civilization)
在此例中,中文原文中的副词“充分”被译为了形容词“full”,是因为译文将“发挥”译为了名词词组,需要使用形容词修饰其中的名词“play”。
由于状语本来就可用介词短语表示,因此在汉译英实践中自然可以把汉语中的副词转换为介词短语。
这样的巧合使父亲在此后的日子里,总是满腹狐疑地看着我和祖父,仿佛这场灾难是我们带来的。
(《在细雨中呼喊》,余华)
This coincidence made my father look at me and Granddad with intense suspicion in the days that followed, for all the world as if we were the ones who had started the blaze.
(Cries in the Drizzle, Allan H. Barr译)
在此例中,译者将“满腹狐疑地”译为了介词短语“with intense suspicion”,不但准确表达出了该副词的含义,而且使得译文简洁流畅、结构清晰。
我只能垂头丧气地走出屋去,用崇拜的目光去寻找哥哥孙光平。
(《在细雨中呼喊》,余华)
I could only leave the room in low spirits and go off in search of Sun Guangping, whose feistiness I admired.
(Cries in the Drizzle, Allan H. Barr译)
在此例中,译者将“垂头丧气地”译为了介词短语“in low spirits”,不仅表达出了“垂头丧气”之意,而且符合英语的表达习惯。
由于英语中的动词经常将动作的方式也包含在自身之中,所以汉译英时,汉语中的副词可以转换为英语中包含动作方式的动词。
父亲的伤口拆了线。父亲躺在窝棚里睡觉,母亲悄悄地溜进去,她轻手轻脚、脸皮滚烫。
(《红高粱家族》,莫言)
Father's stitches were removed. Mother slipped into the shack where Father was sleeping and tiptoed up to his kang, her cheeks burning.
(Red Sorghum , Howard Goldblatt译)
在英语译文中,中文原文中的两个副词“悄悄地”“轻”分别被译为了动词词组“slipped into”“tiptoed up to”。其中,词组“slip into”中含有“悄悄”之意,“tiptoe up to”中含有“轻轻”之意,因此译文将两个副词译为了动词词组,使译文更加地道。
尤其是妇人感情真挚,痴到无可形容,男子过了约定时间不回来,做梦时,就总常常梦船拢了岸,一个人摇摇荡荡的从船跳板到了岸上,直向身边跑来。
(《边城》,沈从文)
Particularly the women, who were given to true infatuations of indescribable simplemindedness, would see their man in their dreams if he failed to return within the agreed-upon time. Often they'd envision the boat pull into shore and their man teeter on his sea legs down the gangplank, then come running directly to her side.
(Border Town , Jeffrey C. Kinkley译)
“teeter”意为“(人)踉踉跄跄”,在此例中,译文将副词“摇摇荡荡的”翻译为动词“teeter”,并与介词表达“on his sea legs down the gangplank”进行搭配,不仅能够表达出原文的含义,而且使得译文结构更加清晰、紧凑。
但一听到客人进门说:“贺喜贺喜”,心中有事,不敢再呆在屋门边,就装作追赶菜园地的鸡,拿了竹响篙唰唰的摇着,一面口中轻轻喝着,向屋后白塔跑去了。
(《边城》,沈从文)
But when she heard the matchmaker say, “Congratulations, congratulations,” at the door, she began to worry. Unwilling to squat by the front door any longer, she pretended to be shooing away the chickens in the vegetable garden. Flailing a bamboo whistling pole in the air, she softly scolded them as she ran toward the white pagoda in back.
(Border Town , Jeffrey C. Kinkley译)
动词“flail”意为“用力地胡乱摆动”,其中包含“唰唰的”之意,因此译文将“唰唰的摇着”译为了动词“flail”。
在翻译一个段落或一个语篇时,应综合使用副词的转换译法。
但是一切外国的东西,如同我们对于食物一样,必须经过自己的口腔咀嚼和胃肠运动,送进唾液胃液肠液,把它分解为精华和糟粕两部分,然后排泄其糟粕,吸收其精华,才能对我们的身体有益,决不能生吞活剥地毫无批判地吸收。所谓“全盘西化”的主张,乃是一种错误的观点。形式主义地吸收外国的东西,在中国过去是吃过大亏的。中国共产主义者对于马克思主义在中国的应用也是这样,必须将马克思主义的普遍真理和中国革命的具体实践完全地恰当地统一起来,就是说,和民族的特点相结合,经过一定的民族形式,才有用处,决不能主观地公式地应用它。
(《毛泽东选集》)
However, we should not gulp any of this foreign material down uncritically, but must treat it as we do our food - first chewing it, then submitting it to the working of the stomach and intestines with their juices and secretions, and separating it into nutriment to be absorbed and waste matter to be discarded - before it can nourish us. To advocate “wholesale westernization” is wrong. China has suffered a great deal from the mechanical absorption of foreign material. Similarly, in applying Marxism to China, Chinese communists must fully and properly integrate the universal truth of Marxism with the concrete practice of the Chinese revolution, or in other words, the universal truth of Marxism must be combined with specific national characteristics and acquire a definite national form if it is to be useful, and in no circumstances can it be applied subjectively as a mere formula.
(Selected Works of Mao Tse-Tung)
在此例的中文原文中,标出了三处副词性状语,译文对这些副词进行了不同的处理。对于“生吞活剥地毫无批判地”,译文省略了“生吞活剥地”,因其义与“毫无批判地”重复;“形式主义地”转换为了形容词“mechanical”;“公式地”转换为了介词短语“as a mere formula”。同时,我们看到,译文还添加了两个原文中没有的副词“first”“then”,增强了译文的逻辑性。此外,译文将原文第一句的最后小句“决不能生吞活剥地毫无批判地吸收”调整到了开头,符合英文先说重点的习惯,这是结构转换法的运用。因此,在翻译段落或语篇时,要综合运用转换译法。越是好的译文,转换应用得越多元、越恰当。
等级转换(rank shift),指的是在不同等级的语言单位上发生的转换,如短语转换为词汇、小句转换为句子等。在汉译英中,常见的等级转换有:短语与小句之间的转换、小句与句子之间的转换。
中国过去在很长的时间里处于封闭状态,经济发展受到限制,直到一九七八年底我们党的十一届三中全会,才把这个问题恰当地解决了。
(《邓小平文选》)
China was closed for a long time, which handicapped its economic development. Not until the Third Plenary Session of the Eleventh Central Committee, held at the end of 1978, did we solve this problem.
(Selected Works of Deng Xiaoping)
我们看到,在中文原文中,该句由四个并列性的小句组成。但在英语译文中,这四个并列性小句的地位发生了等级转换:最后两个小句成为了一个独立句,而第二个小句则成为了第一个小句的非限制性定语从句。转换的原因是中文原文中的第三、四个小句讲的是另外一个话题,在英语中需单独成句;第一、二个小句间存在因果关系,所以需在英语译文中体现这种逻辑关系,在此选择使用定语从句体现两个小句间的因果关系。
智深正问间,猛闻得一阵香来。智深提了禅杖,踅过后面,打一看时,见一个土灶,盖着一个草盖,气腾腾撞将起来。智深揭起看时,煮着一锅粟米粥。
(《水浒传》,施耐庵)
① As Sagacious was questioning the old monks he got a whiff of something fragrant. He took up his staff and went stealthily to the rear. There, on an earthen stove, steam was seeping through the reed cover of a pot. Sagacious raised the lid. Millet was simmering inside.
(Outlaws of the Marsh, Sidney Shapiro译)
② While Zhishen was making these inquiries, an exciting odour was wafted to his nostrils. Staff in hand, he padded to the back to investigate. What met his eyes was a little earthenware stove with a woven cover, a fragrant steam spiralling up from it. He lifted the cover and there was a pot of gruel bubbling away.
(The Marshes of Mount Liang, John&Alex Dent-Young译)
在此例中,中文原文是一系列并列的小句。在两则英语译文中,我们看到登特-杨父子的版本中小句向短语的等级转换程度更高,有四处,分别是“staff in hand”“what met his eyes”“with a woven cover”“a fragrant steam spiralling up from it”;而沙博理的译文则只有一处小句向短语的等级转换,即“through the reed cover of a pot”。但在小句向句子的等级转换方面,沙博理的译文转换更多,将原文译为了五个独立的句子,相对来说结构较为松散;而登特-杨父子则只将原文译为了四个独立句,结构更为紧凑。
香港自古以来就是中国的领土,一八四零年鸦片战争以后被英国占领。一九八四年十二月十九日,中英两国政府签署了关于香港问题的联合声明,确认中华人民共和国政府于一九九七年七月一日恢复对香港行使主权,从而实现了长期以来中国人民收回香港的共同愿望。
(《中华人民共和国香港特别行政区基本法》)
Hong Kong has been part of the territory of China since ancient times; it was occupied by Britain after the Opium War in 1840. On 19 December 1984, the Chinese and British Governments signed the Joint Declaration on the Question of Hong Kong, affirming that the Government of the People's Republic of China will resume the exercise of sovereignty over Hong Kong with effect from 1 July 1997, thus fulfilling the long-cherished common aspiration of the Chinese people for the recovery of Hong Kong.
(The Basic Law of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of The People's Republic of China)
中文原文中由“确认”和“从而实现”所引导的两个小句,在英语译文中转换为了由“affirming”和“thus fulfilling”构成的两个动名词短语。转换之后,也体现出了该法律文本语言上的正式性。
当前,我国科技领域仍然存在一些亟待解决的突出问题,特别是同党的十九大提出的新任务新要求相比,我国科技在视野格局、创新能力、资源配置、体制政策等方面存在诸多不适应的地方。
(《习近平谈治国理政》)
Currently, some prominent problems continue to interfere with China's scientific and technological development; they need to be addressed immediately. Our science and technology vision, framework, innovative capability, resource allocation, system and policies are not yet adapted to the new tasks and requirements set at the 19th CPC National Congress held in 2017.
(The Governance of China)
在此例中,“亟待解决的”在中文原文中只是一个短语,但在英语译文中则升级为了一个小句“they need to be addressed immediately”,起到了强调的作用,以突出解决这些任务的迫切性。中文原文为一个句子,但句内的第二部分在英语译文中单独成句了。
第一条 中华人民共和国为了扩大国际经济合作和技术交流,允许外国公司、企业和其它经济组织或个人(以下简称外国合营者),按照平等互利的原则,经中国政府批准,在中华人民共和国境内,同中国的公司、企业或其它经济组织(以下简称中国合营者)共同举办合营企业。
(《中华人民共和国中外合资经营企业法》)
Article 1 With a view to expanding international economic cooperation and technological exchange, the People's Republic of China shall permit foreign companies, enterprises, other economic organizations or individuals (hereinafter referred to as “foreign joint ventures”)to establish equity joint ventures together with Chinese companies, enterprises or other economic organizations (hereinafter referred to as “Chinese joint ventures”)within the territory of the People's Republic of China, on the principle of equality and mutual benefit, and subject to approval by the Chinese Government.
( The Law of the People's Republic of China on Chinese-Foreign Equity Joint Ventures)
中文原文中,有六个小句,但在英语译文中这些小句基本都转换为了介词短语,如“with a view to”“on the principle of”“subject to”。这样,就只保留了主句“中华人民共和国允许……”,主次分明,逻辑清晰,避免歧义,符合法律文本对语言的要求。
在汉译英中,等级转换,特别是小句与句子间的等级转换是使用频率很高的转换方式,因为在句式结构方面,中文习惯使用短的并列结构,而英语则习惯使用长的层级复合结构。当然,这种转换也受到文体方面的影响。在文学文体中,这种转换具有选择性,转与不转可以由译者的意图决定;在正式的非文学文体中,这种转换的必要程度则较高。下面,我们来看一个没有运用等级转换的例子。
历史一段一段。一朝兴,一朝亡。亡中兴,兴中亡。兴兴亡亡,扰得小百姓不得安生,碍吃碍喝,碍穿碍戴,可就碍不着小脚的事儿。打李后主到宣统爷,女人裹脚兴了一千年,中间换了多少朝代,改了多少年号,小脚不一直裹?历史干它嘛了?上起太后妃子,下至渔女村姑,文的李清照,武的梁红玉,谁不裹?猴不裹,我信。
(《三寸金莲》,冯骥才)
Our history developed stage by stage. One dynasty rose; one dynasty fell. There were rises in the falls and falls in the rises. All the political ups and downs, harrying the common people, left them no peace and affected them in their homes, down to their very food, drink, and clothing. But all these upheavals failed to disturb foot binding. From the rule of Li Yu in 961 to the last Emperor Xuantong in 1912, women bound their feet for a thousand years. Even though dynasties changed, emperors changed, women's feet were continuously bound. So what difference does history make? From the empress and imperial concubine to the village girl and fisherman's daughter, from the great poetess Li Qing-zhao to the military heroine Liang Hong-yu, who didn't bind her feet? Only the she-monkeys, I'd guess.
(The Three-Inch Golden Lotus: A Novel on Foot Binding, David Wakefield译)
我们看到,在中文原文中,冯骥才用的都是些很短的小句,有的甚至就三四个字。其英语译文几乎也是由这种短句构成的,译者并没有将小句合并为语法单位上更大的句子。
叶子南(2019)指出,翻译中的转换是翻译的基本功。说起翻译中的灵活与变通,大家也许会说,就算是其他文本,比如科技法律方面的文字,翻译起来照样需要灵活与变通。没错,只要是翻译,就不可能亦步亦趋,紧跟原文。译者总得摆脱原文的束缚,根据译入语的习惯,写出译文读者读起来感觉顺畅的文字。在这个过程中,好的译者会展现高超的变通技巧,灵活地处理原文。