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This book is a collection of three essays that focus on EM in European private and public firms.Following this introduction，Chapter 2 reviews the relevant literature.Chapter 3 computes four different proxies capturing a range of country-level EM activities：（1）the tendency of firms to hide small losses，（2）the magnitude of total accrual，（3）smoothness of earnings and（4）the correlation between accounting accruals and operating cash flows，and examines the effects of mandatory IFRS adoption on EM.It also considers other institutional factors，such as legal enforcement，investor protection and tax regimes influencing the level of EM across European countries.Chapter 4 focuses on accrual quality and conditional conservatism of European private versus public firms and compares firms’accrual quality and conditional conservatism in the pre-IFRS and post-IFRS adoption period，to test the impact of IFRS adoption.It also examines whether firm-level factors affect differential EM between private and public firms.Chapter 5 examines whether the extent of REM differs among private versus public firms by using accounting data of European firms，and tests this difference both in general and in certain settings，where clear incentives for EM exist.As in the previous two chapters，the impact of IFRS adoption is considered in Chapter 5 as well.Finally，Chapter 6 provides a summary of the study，discusses the implications and limitation of the book and raises significant issues and questions which might be the subject for future study.