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Traditionally，the process of translation is dichotomously divided into comprehension of the source language text，and reproduction of the source language text in the target language text.However，it is necessary to add another phase known as improvement of the target language text.
Translators and translation theorists pay much attention to the process of translation.
Newmark stated （2001）that there are three basic translation processes.The first is comprehension of the source text；the second comprises the translation procedures，which may be direct，or on the basis of source language and target language corresponding syntactic structures，or through an underlying logical inter-language；the third is reformulation.Nida （2001）listed five factors and eight steps of translation.In his view，even the basic process in translation consists of four steps of analysis，transfer，restructuring，and test.According to Nida，analysis is the procedure of determining the meaning of the source text，including the meaning of lexeme，syntax，rhetorical devices，discourse，etc.Transfer involves the shifting of thinking from source language to target language.Restructuring means transformation of deep structures in the source language text into surface structures in the target language text.Test is a contrastive analysis of the source language text with the target language text in terms of meaning.
From the explications above，we can see that the central task in translation is comprehension of the source language text and reconstruction of meaning of the source language text in the target language text.Then，it is surprising that the two famous scholars should have failed to include the crucial role context plays in getting meaning across when explaining the process of translation.We all know that when meaning in communication is under discussion，context is the prerequisite factor.Here Bell's model is borrowed to illustrate the process of translation，and some revisions are made to account for the crucial factor of context.Let's look at the following figure.
（Adapted from Bell，1991，2001：19）
This figure tells us clearly that translation is for translators to convey the messages manifested in both the source language signal by the sender and the source language context （SLC）adequately to the receiver via corresponding messages manifested in the target language signal and target language context （TLC）.This process involves two stages：the stage of comprehension of the message expressed by the source language sender，where the translator assumes the role of source language text receptor and comprehends the signal via SLC，and that of reproduction in which the translator reproduces the comprehended message of the source language text in the target language text，which is understood via the TLC.Eight steps are distinguished here：
1）The sender selects a message in the source language.
2）Encodes the message in signal 1 with the SLC.
3）Transmits signal 1 containing the message.
4）The translator receives signal 1 manifesting the message.
5）Decodes signal 1 in the light of the SLC.
6）Comprehends the message.
7）Encodes the message by means of the target language via the TLC.
8）Transmits signal 2 containing the message.
Step 4）to step 5）constitute the first stage，which proceeds in the source language context，and step 7）to step 8）make up the second stage，which is carried through in the target language context，while step 6）is the linking belt.
The upper trapezoid represents the SLC and the lower one stands for the TLC.The two graphs have some overlapping area，which means that any two languages or two cultures share something in common.Another thing we should note is that people who share the same language share greater context than people who do not share the same language，therefore，there exist context defaults.People who speak different languages in different cultures will default differently.And it is the translators' task to decide which default in the source language and culture should be filled up in the target language text.
A correct understanding of the source language text，which is the prerequisite for its adequate reproduction，is derived from a good comprehension of the source language text at both the macro-level and the micro-level.This section briefly deals with comprehension and reproduction of the source language text at the macro-level.
A thorough macro-comprehension of the source language text，which is indispensable for a faithful or correct reproduction of the original，comprises a good understanding of such important aspects as the text type，the background or setting，the writing style，the topic category，the theme，the writer's intention or purpose，the communication addressees，etc.of the source language text.A thorough or very good macro-comprehension of the source language text will facilitate its adequate micro-comprehension and contribute to the good quality of the whole version.For lack of space，we have to confine ourselves to a brief discussion of comprehension and reproduction of only the original text type and its style.
First of all，it is necessary to make out which text category the original belongs to，for texts of different categories possess and demonstrate distinctive characteristics，which set different demands on the translator.As is known to all，there are four types of texts：narrative，descriptive，expositive and argumentative texts.In order to immediately recognize and determine the original text type，the translator ought to bear in mind the particular distinguishing features of each text category.Moreover，he or she should be well aware of what they are required to do by each text type in the process of translation.
If the source language text is recognized as a text of narration，the translator ought to be quite clear about the following questions：Is the text narrated or described from the first person angle or from the third person perspective？Does the narrator relate real events or fictitious ones？Are the events or human activities in the source language text organized in a chronological order or in a spatial sequence？Is it characterized by flashbacks，inverted narration，or supplementary narration？If the translator has a good grasp of the correct answers to all the above questions，he or she will benefit a great deal in the course of translation.Normally，the translator knows very well that he or she is not entitled to change the angle or the sequence of narration.For example，if the original narrator is a third person story teller，the translator cannot employ the first person narrator instead.If the source language text contains some flashbacks，he or she is not entitled to adjust the sequence of narration.As a rule，a narrative text contains many dynamic verbs and involves the use of different tenses.For this reason，the translator is supposed to employ plenty of action verbs and use proper tenses in the version.
If the source language text is found to be a descriptive article，the translator should make effort to understand whether it describes a scene （scenes）or a person （persons），whether it provides subjective or objective descriptions and whether the descriptions are general or specific.If the source language text provides objective descriptions of real scenes，usually quite a number of nouns，verbs and adjectives are employed，relatively fewer adverbs are used，and choices of words and sentences are made impersonally.The translator should pay attention to these linguistic features of the source language text and endeavor to reproduce them in the version by avoiding employment of words and phrases tinged with strong personal feelings，attitudes and comments.If the source language text is filled with subjective descriptions，normally many words，expressions and sentences are touched with personal feelings and attitudes；besides，various rhetorical devices are frequently employed.If the source language text supplies descriptions of some persons，it is usually imbued with descriptions of their appearance，their psychological activities，their deeds and words.The translator is duty-bound to understand such linguistic features of descriptive texts and render them faithfully into target language texts.
If the source language text is a piece of exposition，it either explains things or provides information and knowledge in an objective and scientific manner.Expositive articles，essays，or papers deal with processes and relationships.They are organized according to logic and on the basis of reasoning.In a piece of exposition，the writer may present a concept，a fact，a discovery，a process，etc.，and explain it by using various techniques such as definition，classification，illustration，cause and effect，comparison and contrast，etc.The translator has to grasp the linguistic characteristics and writing techniques of expositive texts and adequately reproduces them in the target language text.
If the source language text is a piece of argumentation，the translator is supposed to well understand that an argumentative article contains an argument which is a set of statements in support of an opinion or proposed course of action，and that persuasive writing is designed to convince the readers that the opinion or course of action presented is correct.The translator ought to grasp the outstanding features of argumentative texts by finding out the argument，the orderly way it is presented and the reasons provided logically before he or she is able to reflect them in the version.While translating a piece of argumentation，the translator is supposed to bring to light the original logical relations and logical meaning by using appropriate diction and employing both coordinating and subordinating conjunctions and other devices.
A good understanding of the original style is equally essential for its reproduction in the version.As we all know，different writers write in different styles.Lao She （老舍）'s writings show a cordial and humorous style.Winston Churchill's famous speeches exhibit a vigorous and sprightly style.Ernest Hemingway's novels demonstrate a simple and symbolic style.Charles Lamb's essays are written in his humorous and inimitable style.William Hazlitt's essays are characterized by a lucid and forceful prose style.Some writers write in an elegant or graceful style.Others write in an ornate style.Still others write in a straightforward style，and so on and so forth.Furthermore，a number of styles are organically integrated in some works.Since there are so many different styles，it is quite necessary for a translator to make much effort to have a good grasp of the style of the source language text before he or she sets pen to paper.It is impossible for the translator to reproduce the source language text style in the version if he does not read through the source language text carefully so that he fails to grasp its style.And if the target language text style is not close to the source language text style，or quite different from it，the version cannot be said to be faithful to the source language text.Therefore，a solid command of the source language text style and its faithful or adequate reproduction in the target language text contribute a great deal to the quality of the version，which is one of the key points to be understood at the macro-level.
Then how to grasp the source language text style？Normally，it is extremely necessary to read through the source language text and have a clear idea of the lexical and syntactic features of the source language text，as well as its content before it is possible to understand the source language text style.If the source language text contains many colloquial words，phrases and sentences，or if it includes dialogues and short oral sentences，the original style must be informal or colloquial.If the source language text contains formal words and expressions and plenty of long and complex sentences，it must be in a formal or written style.If the source language text is characterized by conciseness and succinctness，its style is certainly concise and terse.Having grasped the original style，the translator is supposed to work hard to reproduce it in the target language text by selecting words，phrases and sentences in the target language that clearly reflect the original style.For example，there are symbols and many short sentences in Hemingway's novels.To duplicate his style，the translator should employ corresponding symbols and short sentences in the target language text.Generally，he or she is not supposed to combine two or more than two sentences in the source language text into a single one in the target language text.For another example，if the source language text gives an account of some scientific knowledge and contains plenty of technical words and involved sentences （long complex sentences），the translator should be well aware of this language feature and employ many corresponding technical terms and complex sentences in the version.
Evidently，it is absolutely necessary for the translator to grasp the original style and reproduce it by making much effort in order to produce a faithful version.
Comprehension and reproduction of the source language text at the macro-level concern many other important factors，which are not discussed here for lack of space.Before committing pen to paper，the translator should make great effort to comprehend the source language text at the macro-level and meanwhile he ought to clearly know how to reproduce it at the macro-level.Undoubtedly，a correct or faithful comprehension and an adequate reproduction of the source language text at the macro-level contribute immensely to its good comprehension and reproduction at the micro-level.
A good comprehension and reproduction of the source language text at the micro-level includes a correct understanding and rendering of the lexical，syntactic and sociocultural phenomena in it.
First of all，it is necessary to decide on the exact meaning of the key polysemous words in the source language text and adequately render it into the target language text.For example：
1 In this book he presents his hero with an Arab's voice and not with the usual Western voice.他以阿拉伯人的口吻，而不是以西方人常用的腔调来介绍他书中的 主人公 。
2 Franz Boas was a specialist in American Indian languages.弗兰兹·博厄斯是一位 美洲印第安人 语言专家。
In the first example，the word “hero”is correctly comprehended as the leading character of the book and faithfully rendered as “主人公”.It should not be comprehended as a heroic person and rendered into “英雄”，for the simple reason that the leading character of the book may not necessarily be a hero and that he or she may be an ordinary person.As we know，the basic meaning of the word “hero”is equivalent to “英雄”in Chinese.But when it is used in a literary work，its specialized meaning “主人公”is normally the right meaning.Therefore，in the course of translation，an exact comprehension and rendering of polysemous words is grounded on the context of the source language text.
“American Indian”in example 2 should not be translated as “美国印第安人”because there are Indians not only in the USA，but also in Canada，South America and Central America.Its rendering as “美洲印第安人”is based on the common knowledge of American history and geography.
Secondly，it is quite necessary to correctly comprehend and adequately translate some phrases whose components are normally close together，but are separated from each other by other elements either for the balance of the sentence structure or for better expression of a certain meaning.Let's observe the following examples.
3 Many sketches are in existence of peasants seated by the roadside and men and women at work in the fields .许多素描留存下来了， 画的是坐在路旁的农民和在田野里劳动的男男女女 。
4 The reactionary strength thus developed ， however ，carried within it the seeds of its own disintegration. 然而，这样发展起来的 反动力量在其内部就带有四分五裂的因素。
Clearly，the subject of example 3 is modified by a long prepositional phrase，but the predicate is very short.For this reason，the long prepositional phrase which restricts the subject is placed after the predicate，i.e.the predicate separates the subject from the long prepositional phrase which restricts it.The whole sentence is very well translated，for the translator possesses a good understanding of the syntactic structure and a firm grasp of the sentence meaning.
In example 4 ，the attributive phrase “thus developed”and the adverb “however”are both inserted between the subject “the reactionary strength”and the predicate verb “carried”，thus bringing about a subject-predicate separation.It is essential to understand this syntactic phenomenon correctly，otherwise，it is impossible to render the sentence faithfully.Example 4 is well comprehended and adequately translated.Evidently，the translator understands the subject-predicate separation well enough.
Thus，we can see that analyzing sentence elements or components and understanding special syntactic phenomena in the source language text constitute a prerequisite for a faithful reproduction of the source language text in the target language text at the micro-level.
Thirdly，a correct comprehension and an adequate reproduction of involved sentences in the source language text represent the translator's central task at the micro-level.For example：
5 思想必须反映客观实际，并且在客观实践中得到检验，证明是真理，这才算是真理，不然就不算。Thought must reflect objective reality and must be tested and verified in objective practice before it can be taken as truth，otherwise it cannot.
6 我们要思想再解放一点，胆子再大一点，办法再多一点，步子再大一点，大大加快我国社会主义建设的速度。In order to greatly speed up our socialist construction，we must further emancipate our minds，act more boldly，devise more ways and means，and make greater strides.
Looking at example 5 ，we can see that it is well translated.Obviously，the subject “思想”is adequately rendered as “thought”，which is a very good choice.The translator must have made a detailed analysis of the whole sentence and its context before he was able to ascertain the specific meaning of “思想”，for this very term is capable of being used in the sense of “thought”，or “idea”，or “concept”，or “thinking”，or “ideology”，etc.depending on the context.Also，from the translated sentence，we know that the translator chose the passive voice，which is very suitable，and that he selected a very appropriate sentence pattern，so that the whole rendering is faithful and idiomatic，with its logical meaning patent at a glance.
Example 6 is adequately translated，too.Evidently，a proper understanding of the key words and expressions，a substantial analysis of the sentential components and a firm grasp of the logical meaning of the original sentence result in a faithful and idiomatic translation in the target language.
Here，the translator grasped and represented the essence and spirit of the original by treating the four “一点”flexibly and placing the last clause “大大加快我国社会主义建设的速度”at the beginning of the translated sentence，thus achieving the unity of content and form.
Faced with an involved sentence，the translator is supposed，first of all，to analyze the sentence structure and sentential meaning so as to become quite clear about the key words used in it，to well understand which clause is the main one and which one（s）is /are the subordinating clause（s），to possess a clear idea of the subject，the predicate，and the object of each clause，and moreover，to have a good grasp of the logical relationships involved in the complex sentence.Then the translator is expected to faithfully reproduce them in the target language text by making careful choices of exact words，phrases，or expressions，by carefully choosing the more suitable voice，and particularly by selecting a most proper sentence pattern in the target language.
This section focuses only on a few points at the micro-level.In fact，there are many more that are worth our attention and effort in the process of translation.But they are all omitted here for lack of space.It is to be noted and stressed that all the important or difficult points in terms of lexical items，syntactic constituents and logical relationships in the source language text must be comprehended fully and correctly in the light of the context and that they are all to be translated adequately，faithfully and idiomatically under the guidance of the translation principles and by employing the fundamental translation approaches and techniques.
Traditionally，the process of translation is dichotomously divided into comprehension of the source language text and reproduction of the source language text in the target language text.In fact we should add a third procedure，that is，the improvement or perfection of the target language text.To some degree this procedure can be included in the stage of reproduction of the source language text in the target language text.However，in order to highlight the importance of making improvements on the target language text，we discuss it as an independent procedure here.
Making improvements on the target language text means that，after a relatively fast translation of the whole text，the translator should spend some time reading through the whole target language text and make corrections and improvements until he or she is quite satisfied with it.While reproducing the source language text，the translator is busy making choices of words and sentences，and probably he or she is unable to have a bird's-eye view of the whole text.Sometimes，there may be some incoherent components in the target language text，or some wrong interpretations for lack of the overall knowledge of the whole text，etc.Therefore，it is definitely necessary for the translator to improve or revise the target language text.
How should the translator revise，polish and perfect the target language text？According to Nida （1993），the translator should put aside the preliminary target language text for some time in order that he or she can treat it as something new while reading it again.In this way the translator can avoid the interference of the earlier rendering so as to evaluate his own work more objectively.After some time，the translator can pick up the target language text once more to perfect it.He may read the target language text aloud since ears are much more sensitive to matters of cohesion and rhythm than eyes are.He may delete some unnecessary additions，make some adjustments for the accuracy of expression，and correct some wrong spellings，punctuations or things like that.
The effort that the translator makes during this procedure should be no less than that in the other procedures.In fact，during this procedure the translator acts as a commentator of his own work so as to try his best to present a successful translation before the readers.As he has to assess and evaluate his work and then make adjustments and improvements by following a yardstick in his mind，inevitably the translator has to be very patient，careful，hardworking and responsible.
Once the chief compiler of this textbook asked a senior professor，“How many times do you usually improve your translation？”After a moment，he answered，“Normally，I improve my version 12 times.I leave no stone unturned to perfect it.I must strive for the best quality.”That professor told us something very important.When we have translated something，we must do our best to improve it again and again，or several times at least so that we may ensure its good quality.
1.The process of translation is divided into three procedures or stages.What are they？
2.What do you know about the first procedure？
3.What do you know about the second procedure？
4.What should the translator do after he or she has finished the target language text？
5.Do you think the third stage of the process of translation is just as important as the other two？Give enough reasons for your answer.
（Written by Tan Weiguo and Zhang Yuhuan）