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Translation strategies are general major methods for translation.They are of universal practical value.They are widely employed in order to achieve an overall aim in translation，i.e.to make what is translated conform to the acceptable translation principles，or to make it desirable and satisfactory.Translation strategies are employed universally in any inter-lingual translation.This chapter is divided into three sections.The first section discusses the three major translation strategies which are commonly used by Chinese translators.The second section explores and proves domestication and foreignization as two major strategies employed by translators at home and abroad.The third section compares literal translation and liberal translation with foreignization and domestication so as to arrive at practical conclusions.
As translators，we often employ the literal translation strategy，the liberal translation strategy，and the literal-plus-liberal translation strategy，which are the most commonly used strategies for translation.This section expounds and illustrates these three major strategies one by one.
Scholars at home and abroad have expressed their opinions of literal translation.
Newmark （2001）points out that literal translation involves conversion of the source language grammatical constructions to their nearest target language equivalents.He proves that literal translation is correct and must not be avoided，if it secures referential and pragmatic equivalence to the original.According to Newmark，literal translation ranges from one word to one word through group to group，collocation to collocation，and clause to clause to sentence to sentence，including translation of metaphors and proverbs.In addition，he believes literal translation to be the basic translation procedure，both in communicative and semantic translation，in that translation starts from there.
Professor Liu Zhongde （1994：172）defined literal translation as follows：“In the process of translation，literal translation treats sentences as basic units and at the same time takes the whole passage into consideration；a translator who attaches great importance to literal translation does his best to reproduce the ideas and writing style of the original work，retaining in the version as many rhetorical devices and sentence structures of the original as possible.”As long as the original meaning is not impaired，it is essential to give priority to literal translation，which is conducive to keeping both the content and basic structure of the original.
The following are some examples.
1 He is said to be a rough diamond.人们说他是一块浑金璞玉。
2 The rewards for the Chinese people are clear，most visibly in the dynamism and prosperity of Beijing and the coastal cities.中国人民获得的实惠显而易见，北京和沿海城市的勃勃生机和繁荣兴旺就是最明显的见证。
3 For the international community，the most striking consequence of these changes is that China has grown rapidly to be the world's second largest economy，and is set to grow further.对国际社会来说，这些变化带来的最引人注目的结果是中国已跃居世界第二经济大国，而且今后注定会有进一步的发展。
4 China's rapid emergence as a major world actor is a tribute to the drive and entrepreneurial spirit of her people，and more particularly to the fundamental economic reforms she has pursued over the past four decades.中国迅速崛起，成为世界舞台上扮演重要角色的一个国家，这应归功于中国人民的努力和进取精神，尤其应归功于过去40年里中国所推行的根本性的经济改革。
5 I would draw a further conclusion，which I believe is central to assessing China's future place in the world economy.我想得出进一步的结论，我认为这个结论对于评估中国今后在世界经济方面的地位是至关重要的。
6 Marriage，with peace，is this world's paradise；with strife，this life's purgatory.和睦的婚姻，是世界的乐园；对抗的婚姻，是人生的炼狱。
Of the six English sentences mentioned above，sentences 1 ， 4 ，and 6 are typical metaphorical ones，and the other three are sentences without any figure of speech.They are all rendered into Chinese sentences by means of the literal translation approach.The six translated Chinese sentences，which reproduce both the original forms and meanings，can be called equivalent versions.
It is considered as a rule that corresponding English and Chinese metaphors with identical vehicles and intended meanings should be translated literally.Besides，although a vehicle in a source language metaphor cannot be found in the target language，and even though the national characteristics of the source language vehicle are very unique，such a metaphor had better be rendered through literal translation，if it is acceptable to the target language text readers.Please refer to sentences 1 and 6 .
It is known to us all that language is the main carrier of culture.In fact，some vehicles of English metaphors have long been absorbed by the Chinese language without undergoing any changes.The following are some examples：
to show one's cards 摊牌；to be armed to the teeth 武装到牙齿；to shed crocodile tears 掉鳄鱼的眼泪；an eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth 以眼还眼，以牙还牙.
The literal translation approach is also appropriate for translation of phrase metaphors，e.g.ray of hope 希望之光；sunny smile 灿烂的笑容.Transfer of complex metaphors is likewise usually possible，e.g.His life hangs on a thread.他的生命悬于一线；to cast a shadow over 笼罩上一层阴影.
In actual fact，most sentences，whether they contain figures of speech or not，can and should be translated by means of the literal approach，if it helps to reproduce both the original meaning and form.The literal translation approach is the most important and most practical strategy.
The literal translation approach exhibits many advantages.By adopting this approach，we can preserve in the version not only the original meaning and form，especially the original figure（s）of speech and figurative meaning，but also the national and local colors and features in the original.In addition，by employing this strategy，we can introduce many foreign things into China，such as new ideas，new fashions，new inventions，new technologies，new foods，and new expressions.Similarly，we can also export many new things in China to foreign countries by using the literal translation approach.That is why it is so commonly employed.
Some famous professors actively advocate extensive application of the literal translation strategy.Liu Zhongde，Zhang Peiji，etc.are representatives of such advocates.Lu Xun，a great thinker as well as a great writer，vigorously advocated the literal translation approach by urging translators to keep the exotic tone and preserve the authentic flavor of the original in the version （罗新璋，陈应年，2009）.
Newmark （2001）states that liberal translation reproduces the matter without the manner，or the content without the form of the original.
Liberal translation or free translation means giving up the original image or vehicle and making effort to find an appropriate way to express the intended meaning of the original.Professor Liu Zhongde （1994）defines the liberal translation approach as follows：Liberal translation is supplementary to literal translation.Liberal translation is employed for the purpose of expressing the original meaning instead of reproducing the original sentence structure or rhetorical device（s）.Normally，only when the literal approach is not suitable，can we translators resort to the free translation approach.Many scholars agree with him on this point.
We all know that，on the whole，the similarities between English and Chinese outweigh their differences.Accordingly，language units which demand free translation are limited in number.In addition，the method of literal translation is more advantageous.For these reasons，macroscopically，the free translation approach should be employed as the last resort.Although it is used much less frequently，the liberal translation approach is quite necessary for translating words and expressions and sentences，especially those that contain rhetorical devices，which are not fit to be handled by means of literal translation.
Please look at the following examples.
7 Do you see any green in my eye？你以为我是 幼稚好欺骗 的吗？
8 Don't cross the bridge till you get to it.不要自寻烦恼。∥不要过早担忧。
9 They love to boast，though often with tongue in cheek .（= They love to brag about themselves，though they often do so insincerely.）他们喜欢自吹自擂，尽管通常 只是说说罢了 。
10 If you are unfair to me，I will certainly hang out all your dirty linen .你要是待我不公平，我必定会 把你那些丑事都抖搂出去 。
11 Similarly，to talk about a car culture ， a throw-away culture ，or the generation gap as exclusively American concerns makes little sense today.同样，如果今天还把 以车代步的生活方式，热衷于使用一次性物品的生活习惯 或者代沟问题当作只有美国人才关注的问题来谈论，那就没有什么意义了。
12 It is not just Britain ' s breathing in which makes it so international，but also its breathing out .英国之所以成为如此国际化的国家，不仅 在于她大量地吸纳国外的人力和物力资源 ，而且 在于她大量地向国外输出其人力和物力资源 。
Example 7 is a rhetorical question with a metaphorical expression.It is rendered into a rhetorical question，which is faithful to the original meaning，but it does not contain the original metaphor.Example 8 is an idiom which is used metaphorically.Clearly，it is rendered into an easily understandable Chinese sentence，which reflects the original figurative meaning，but which does not include the original metaphorical vehicle.Examples 9 and 10 both contain a metaphorical idiom，which is reproduced freely and properly in their respective versions.
Example 11 includes two phrases which are used as cases of synecdoche.Obviously，the word “culture”in “a car culture”and that in “a throw-away culture”are employed as cases of synecdoche，in which the entity of culture stands for part of it.Therefore，“a car culture”represents a way of life in our times：people in developed countries and many people in developing countries depend on their cars whenever they go out to do something.Similarly，“a throw-away culture”refers to our habit of throwing away such things as paper boxes，paper cups，plastic bags，etc.after they are used once.Example 11 ，which seems hard to understand，is well translated into a fluid comprehensible Chinese sentence by means of free translation.
Example 12 ，which includes two metaphorical phrases—“breathing in”and “breathing out”，seems hard to understand，but it is translated into an intelligible Chinese sentence because the two metaphorical phrases are reproduced correctly through addition of proper words and phrases in light of the context.
Evidently，all the above examples are sentences which contain rhetorical devices.Except example 11 ，which involves cases of synecdoche，all the other English examples listed above are sentences with metaphorical expressions or idioms.We cannot find their corresponding expressions in the Chinese language，so cultural vacancies exist in the target language.If they were translated mechanically into Chinese sentences，we Chinese readers would find them difficult to understand.If they were rendered into Chinese by means of literal translation，the Chinese versions would be unreadable，puzzling，and misleading，and furthermore，they would completely distort the original meaning.And that is why the above sentences are handled by means of free translation.That is why the original rhetorical devices or images are all dropped and only their figurative or extended meanings are kept in the versions.
Some sentences have to be translated both literally and liberally because of bilingual differences.Only thus can they be translated into intelligible versions.The literal-plus-liberal translation approach is also desirable when reference books like dictionaries are compiled.The following examples are provided to illustrate this equally important method.
13 Blessed by year-round good weather， Spain is a magnet for sun-worshippers and holiday-makers . 西班牙 蒙上帝保佑，一年四季天气很好， 宛如一块磁铁，吸引着酷爱阳光、爱好度假的人们 。
14 You can spread your wings with Open Studies.开放型大学 让你展翅飞翔 。
15 第一流产品，为 足下增光 。（红鸟鞋油广告语）This first-rate shoe polish adds luster to your shoes and honor to you ， our friends .
16 世界看中国，中国有先科。As she boasts Advanced Science，China attracts global eyes.
17 Every bullet has its billet.颗颗弹丸都有它的归宿。∥天命难违。
18 Hope is the poor man's bread.希望是穷人的面包。∥穷人靠希望活着。
19 Today a man，tomorrow a mouse.今天是人，明天是鼠。∥今天得志，明天落魄。
20 Experience is the mistress of fools.经验是愚人的主妇。∥经验支使愚人。
Examples 13 ， 14 ， 15 ，and 16 all contain rhetorical devices and they are rendered respectively into Chinese by means of literal-plus-liberal translation.Example 13 is a typical metaphorical sentence in which Spain is compared to a magnet.Not only the tenor and the vehicle but also the figurative meaning are all reproduced in the version.Example 14 is a case of implicit and complicated metaphor，which possesses a profound meaning.It is translated into a vivid metaphorical sentence in Chinese，which is faithful to the original.“足下”and “增光”in example 15 are used respectively as cases of pun，which are reproduced adequately and vividly in the version.Example 16 ，which reads like a couplet and contains a rhetorical device called “顶真”in Chinese，is rendered flexibly into an excellent version with a logically clear relationship of cause and effect.Examples 17 ， 18 ， 19 ，and 20 are proverbs or idiomatic sayings.They are each rendered respectively into two versions，one translated literally，and the other done liberally.As a matter of fact，English idioms，including maxims and proverbs，are normally translated into Chinese first literally and then freely，when different types of references are compiled such as dictionaries and textbooks.Thus，readers find it very convenient to refer to them.
It can be easily seen from the examples above that the literal-plus-liberal translation strategy is necessary and desirable.If used properly，it can help produce faithful and intelligible versions.Particularly，when the original involves a rhetorical device，and if the application of either literal or free translation is not desirable enough，the literal-plus-liberal translation strategy is normally employed，which is most likely to bring about wonderful versions.
21 Inspiration Is the Number One Cause of Greatness
①If information is power，then inspiration must be the power of our potential，the power that moves us from the systematic to the spontaneous.②From ideas to results.③At Compaq we believe technology is no longer simply a tool for information.④It's a tool for inspiration.⑤Redefining access.⑥From set time to any time.⑦From one place to a million places.⑧With the touch of a button，we no longer fire-up just our computers，but our imaginations.⑨We're moving beyond the limitations of Information Technology to a new technology.⑩Welcome to the new IT.⑪ Inspiration Technology from Compaq.（转引自王卫平.英语科技文献的语言特点与翻译.2009：117）
灵感——伟大成就之源
（a）如果信息就是力量，那么灵感便是一股使我们从按部就班到 创造自如 ，从 创新理念 到取得成就的潜能。（b） 康柏相信 ，科技 不再仅仅 是信息工具， 而且 是 启发 灵感的 魔力 。（c）科技把“联系”一词重新定义： 跨越时空的界限 。（d）触动按钮，我们不再只是启动计算机，还 同时启动了丰富的 想象力。（e）我们正在 超越 信息科技的种种限制，向全新的科技 境界迈进。 （f）激发灵感的科技源自康柏。（g）欢迎进入康柏新信息科技世界。（主编译）
Obviously，the source text in example 21 is the verbal part of an English advertisement.It consists of six sentences，i.e.①，③，④，⑧，⑨，and ⑩，and five sentence fragments，i.e.②，⑤，⑥，⑦，and ⑪.For convenience of analysis，the sentences and fragments of the source texts are numbered in sequence，and so are the sentences of the version.
In order to highlight the main idea that IT from Compaq is new and special in that it provides you not only with a tool for information but also with a tool for inspiration，attractive expressions are used in proper places and fascinating sentences are aptly employed；moreover，five sentence fragments are used to create more information units，which are stressed while read or uttered，and which means that more key information is particularly emphasized.
Observing the source text and the version，we can see clearly that the version is well done.① and ② of the source text are combined and reproduced by sentence （a）in the version with proper words （“创造”“创新”等）added to it through the literal-plus-liberal strategy.We can easily infer that ② of the source text is actually the last part of ①.Therefore，it is reasonable to integrate ① and ② of the source text and let them appear as sentence （a）of the version.③ and ④ of the source text are combined and rendered as sentence （b）of the version，likewise with accurate or precise words added to it.Clearly，the translation strategy involved is also the literal-plus-liberal strategy.⑤，⑥，and ⑦ of the source text are treated in a creative manner and rendered as （c）in the version by means of liberal translation.⑧ and ⑨ of the source text are well handled mainly through literal translation，as can be seen from （d）and （e）in the version.⑪ of the source text，as a sentence fragment，which is actually the last part of ⑩，is handled as a sentence through literal translation and placed before （g）in the version，as can be seen from （f）of the version，which may be considered to be a clever act，because it contributes to the theme of the advertisement.⑩ of the source text is represented by （g）in the version，also through literal translation.The last sentence of the source text and that of the version both indirectly call on the expected consumers to take purchasing action.
From an analysis of example 21 ，we may conclude that the three translation strategies usually produce effective effects if they are used in proper places，and that the literal translation strategy is the most commonly used one and can be regarded as the dominating translation strategy.
22 科学的春天
①我们中华民族在人类文明发展史上，曾经有过杰出的贡献。②现在在共产党的领导下，我们民族正在经历着一场伟大的复兴。③恩格斯在谈到16世纪欧洲文艺复兴时曾经说过，那是一个需要巨人而且产生了巨人的时代。④今天，我们社会主义祖国的伟大革命和建设，更加需要大批社会主义时代的巨人，我们不仅要有政治上、文化上的巨人，我们同样需要有自然科学和其他方面的巨人。⑤我们相信一定会涌现出大批这样的巨人。
⑥科学是讲求实际的。⑦科学是老老实实的学问，来不得半点虚假，需要付出艰巨的劳动。⑧同时，科学也需要创造，需要幻想。⑨有幻想才能打破传统的束缚，才能发展科学。⑩科学工作者不应当把幻想让诗人独占了。⑪嫦娥奔月，龙宫探宝，《封神演义》上的许多幻想，由于科学发展，今天大都变成了现实。⑫伟大的天文学家哥白尼说，人类的天职在于勇于探索真理。⑬我国人民历来是勇于探索，勇于创造，勇于革命的。⑭我们一定要打破陈规，披荆斩棘，开拓我国科学发展的道路。⑮既异想天开，又实事求是，这是科学工作者特有的风格。
⑯让我们在无穷的宇宙长河中去探索无穷的真理吧！（郭沫若）
Spring for Science
（a）In the past we the Chinese nation made outstanding contributions to the development of human civilization.（b）Right now，led by the Communist Party，our nation is undergoing a great renaissance.（c）Engels once referred to the Renaissance in the 16th century Europe as an epoch which，in need of giants，gave birth to giants.（d）Today，the great revolution and construction in our socialist motherland even more urgently need large numbers of giants of this epoch of socialism.（e）We need not only political and cultural giants，but giants in natural sciences and other fields as well.（f）It is our conviction that these giants are certain to emerge in large numbers.
（g）Science deals with things in a practical way.（h）Science means honest，solid knowledge，allowing not an iota of falsehood，and it involves herculean efforts and gruelling toil.（i）At the same time，science also calls for creativeness and imagination；only with imagination is it possible to break away from the confines of conventionalities and make headway in science.（j）Scientists are supposed not to let poets alone have the exclusive use of imagination.（k）“Chang'e goes flying to the moon”“probing the underwater treasure-trove in the Palace of the Dragon King”，and many fabulous things related in Apotheosis of Heroes ，thanks to the advances of science，have today come true.（l）Copernicus，the great astronomer，said that it is man's duty to be courageous enough to seek for truth.（m）Our people have always been courageous to probe into things，to make inventions，and to make revolutions.（n）We must break through conventions，blaze new trails，and open up our own road of scientific development.（o）Lend wings to your imagination while doing things in a down-to-earth manner—this is the style typical of scientific workers.
（p）So let us explore the boundless universe in quest of never-ending truth.（主编译）
All the sentences of the source text and those of the version are numbered for the sake of analysis.The first paragraph of the source text consists of five sentences，while that of the version contains six sentences.A glance at the source text and at the version tells us that ④ of the source text is divided into two parts and translated as （d）and （e）of the version.The translation technique involved is known as division.Clearly，①，②，③，and ④ of the first paragraph are all rendered into the target language by means of the literal translation strategy，so that the corresponding translated sentences are faithful in meaning and similar in form.Sentence ⑤ of the source text is translated as （f）of the version.It is handled by means of the literal-plus-liberal strategy，for“涌现”，which is used metaphorically，is rendered through the liberal approach as “emerge in large numbers”，and also （f）of the version differs from ⑤ of the source text in structure.
Obviously，⑥，⑮，and ⑯ of the source text are translated respectively as （g），（o），and （p）of the version through the literal-plus-liberal strategy.As a result，the translated sentences are not only faithful，fluent，and natural，but also accurate，dynamic，and vivid.
All the other sentences in the second paragraph of the source text are rendered into English by means of the literal translation strategy，as can be seen from （h）-（n）in the version，which are faithful and smooth and which are similar in form.
In conclusion，example 22 ，a short text，is translated mainly through the literal strategy and secondly through the literal-plus-liberal strategy.Proper application of these two translation strategies contributes to the quality of the whole version.
It is to be heeded that while translating a text，it is quite necessary to flexibly apply the translation strategies，that it is essential to keep the version cohesive and coherent by utilizing cohesive devices，and that it is even more important to employ proper words and expressions in proper places and to use apt structures or sentence patterns in the version.
There are quite a number of studies on domestication and foreignization abroad and in China.
Initial studies on domestication and foreignization in the West can be traced back to Friedrich Schleiermacher，a German theologian and philosopher.In 1813，in his essay entitled “On the Different Methods of Translation”，Schleiermacher emphasized that there were two paths in translation：Either the translator leaves the author in peace，as much as possible，and moves the readers toward him.Or he leaves the readers in peace，as much as possible，and moves the author toward him.（quoted in Venuti，2004：19-20）
The two paths mentioned above are equivalent to the original definition of foreignization and to that of domestication.Schleiermacher preferred the reader-to-author path to the author-to-reader path，for he thought that only through contact with foreign elements could German be perfected.
In the 1980s，deconstructionism was introduced into translation theories，thus bringing a new perspective for translation studies.Deconstructionism seeks differences while putting aside similarities.Lawrence Venuti is a representative of deconstructionism.He expands the study of translation strategies into a broader dimension by connecting translation to politics，culture，and history.In his masterpiece The Translator ' s Invisibility ： A History of Translation （2004），Venuti proposes “domestication”and “foreignization”，and he shows his preference to “foreignization”.
According to Venuti （2004），domestication means bringing the foreign culture closer to the readers in the target culture，making the translated text recognizable and familiar.The concept of domestication involves two important factors.
The first factor is fluency.Domestication is closely linked with a fluent translation style.“A fluent translation is written in English that is current （‘modern’）instead of archaic，that is widely used instead of specialized （‘jargonization’），that is standard instead of colloquial （‘slangy’）”（Venuti，2004：4）.Obviously，a fluent translation is a domesticated one，in other words，it is fluid，idiomatic，natural，and of course familiar.Shuttleworth and Cowie （1997）define the term of domestication in this way：“A term used by Venuti to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent，fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for target language readers.”Domesticated translations are naturally fluent and easy to read.
The second essential factor involved in domestication is ethnocentric.Here，“ethnocentric”means that domesticated translation should erase the linguistic and cultural differences of the original text and handle them in such a way that they are made to conform to the current dominant values in the target language culture.For Venuti，domestication is a negative term.It is a policy common in dominant cultures which are aggressive，monolingual，and unreceptive to the foreign，and it invisibly “inscribes a foreign text with target language values and provides readers with narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in another culture”（Shuttleworth and Cowie，1997：43-44）.Thus，domestication can easily bring about cultural hegemony.
Nida is an influential advocator of domestication，who focuses on the communicative function of translation.He proposes dynamic equivalence，which means that the receptors of the original message in the receptor language respond to it in the same manner as the receptors in the source language （Nida，1964：166）.Nida classifies dynamic equivalence into two levels：minimal level of equivalence and maximal level of equivalence.He considers the latter ideal and hard to achieve，and he regards the former as a fundamental requirement of translation.“A dynamic equivalence aims at complete naturalness of expression，and tries to relate the receptor to modes of behavior relevant within the context of his own culture”（Nida，1964：159）.It is unnecessary for the receptors to know the culture background in the source language text.A good translation should be natural，readable，and understandable for the receptors.Nida's “Dynamic Equivalence”can be viewed as a euphemism for domesticating strategy （Lefevere，1992）.
Foreignization is a term which Venuti created and which is in contrast to the domesticating strategy.Foreignization means taking the readers over to the foreign culture，making them see the cultural and linguistic differences.
According to Venuti （2004），translation should provide communication of foreign texts or cultures，to show differences of a foreign language and a foreign culture，and to introduce something new.The foreignizing strategy respects differences of the source language and the source culture and enables target readers to gain an alien reading experience.Foreignization is a translation strategy used to keep or communicate differences.It is also an approach Venuti uses to resist ethnocentrism.Venuti （2004）mentions the fact that in “aggressively monolingual”cultures，like the Anglo-American culture，most translated texts are domesticated and the foreign culture that does not favor the elites is often cleared away.
Foreignization emphasizes foreign identities of the source language and protects them from the ideological dominance of the target culture.Foreignization plays an important role in resisting cultural hegemony.
With the introduction of domestication and foreignization into China，many researchers have raised their opinions on the two translation strategies.
In 1987，an academic paper entitled “Domestication：the Wrong Track in Translation”by Liu Yingkai （刘英凯）aroused the first round of dispute on domestication and foreignization.In his paper，he sharply criticizes the overuse of domestication in translation in China，including wild abuse of Chinese four character phrases，of Chinese archaisms，of the “abstract method”，of the substitution method and the groundless use of images and idioms.He considers domestication as the extreme of free translation，and inevitably a distortion of the original.He hopes that foreignization will play the dominating role in translation （Liu，1987）.
Professor Liu Yingkai's opinion might be controversial，but his criticism of the overuse of domestication holds water and prompts researchers to rethink about translation strategies.
In 1995， Weihui Reading Weekly and The School of Foreign Studies，Nanjing University organized a survey of readers' responses to different versions of the French novel Scarlet and Black ，which gave rise to a debate on many translation issues，including domestication and foreignization.In the following years，many researchers discussed domestication and foreignization and most of them showed their preference to foreignization.Sun Zhili （2002：44）believes that foreignization will occupy the dominant place in the 21st century in China.He looks on foreignization as a necessary strategy by means of which literary translation can be promoted in China.But he stresses that translators must pay much attention to Chinese language，Chinese culture，and the readers' acceptability when they apply foreignization in translation.
However，some scholars have different opinions.Cai Ping （蔡平）advocates application of domestication in literary translation.He argues that translation should be a process of constant use of domestication，for the aim of translation is to communicate and help readers understand the original text.With the passage of time and development of society，foreignization may turn into domestication.For example，Lin Shu （林纾）'s translation of “honeymoon”into “蜜月”may be considered as a typical instance rendered by means of foreignization in his times，but it may be viewed as a case handled by domestication nowadays （Cai，2002）.
Based on an analysis of translations of figurative uses of language in the two English versions of the classical Chinese novel entitled Dream in the Red Mansion ，Professor Guo Jianzhong （1998：12-18）arrives at a conclusion that domestication and foreignization have their own value of existence，and that we can apply both of them appropriately so long as we consider the intention of the author，types of texts，translation purposes，and readership.
Xu Jianping （许建平）suggests choosing different translation strategies according to different types of source texts.For English to Chinese translation，Xu proposes foreignization as the dominant translation strategy with domestication as the supplementary one.For Chinese to English translation，Xu maintains that domestication should be involved as much as possible.
Another scholar Wang Dongfeng holds different opinions.He studies translators' choices of strategies in different historical periods by adopting the poly-system theory and manages to justify the current appeal to the dominance of foreignization （2002：24-26）.
From what has been discussed above，we can see that different scholars in China possess different views on the employment of the two translation strategies.Some scholars tend to argue for frequent application of foreignization，others are in favor of constant use of domestication，and still others believe that the two translation strategies should be applied flexibly.
The domesticating strategy is widely applicable.Let's analyze some examples below.
23 to leave no stone unturned不遗余力∥to pull one's leg愚弄某人∥a wet blanket扫兴的人或事物∥a fly in the ointment美中不足∥Every bean has its black.人皆有短处。∥Every man has a fool in his sleeve.人人都有糊涂的时候。∥Love lives in cottages as well as in courts.爱情不分贫富贵贱。
Clearly，the English phrases and sentences mentioned above are all commonly used idioms in English.They are all specific and vivid cases of metaphor，each of them implying a figurative meaning.As they are all peculiar to the English language and to the British culture，they have no corresponding counterparts in the Chinese language or in our Chinese culture.Obviously，they are all translated into common Chinese idioms by means of domestication.In other words，only the extended implicit profound meanings of the above English idioms are reproduced in the translated Chinese idioms，where the forms or the vehicles of the original idioms are all absent.If the above English idioms were rendered into Chinese by means of foreignization，the versions would be wrong or nonsense，or confusing，or even misleading.Nobody would be able to understand them.That is why the above-mentioned English idioms must be translated by means of domestication.
24 It was a day as fresh as grass growing up and clouds going over and butterflies coming down can make it.It was a day compounded from silences of bee and flower and ocean and land ，which were not silences at all，but motions ， stirs ， flutters ， risings ， fallings ，each in its own time and matchless rhythm.（E.Bradbury： The Vacation ）
绿草萋萋，白云冉冉，彩蝶翩翩 ，那日子如此 清新可爱；蜜蜂无言，春花不语，海波声歇，大地静谧 ，那日子如此万籁俱寂；然而并非安静，因为万物在各自特定的时间，以其特有的节奏， 或动，或摇，或振，或起，或伏 。（连淑能，2006：44）
Example 24 ，which consists of two complex sentences，describes a particular day in a very vivid way.It reads smooth and rhythmical.It is to be noted that “and”，a most common coordinator，is used again and again in succession，indicating a series of things happening simultaneously.Obviously，example 24 is translated wonderfully well.The version，which depicts a beautiful bright spring day，is fluid，vivid，and impressive.At a glance，we can see that example 24 is rendered by means of domestication.Firstly，the version includes nine four-character expressions，of which three contain reduplicated words，and which are dynamic，smooth，and vivid to read.Secondly，the version is characterized by repetition of words and expressions and parallelism of phrases and sentence structures：for instance，“那日子”“如此”，and “或”are repeatedly used；all the four-character expressions are parallel to one another，and so are “或动，或摇，或振，或起，或伏”；moreover，the basic structures of the version go parallel to each other.Thirdly，“and”is omitted in the version and some words are added to it in proper places.On the whole，the version is quite faithful，idiomatic，and graceful.
25 一条 浩浩荡荡 的长江大河，有时流到很宽阔的境界， 平原无际，一泻万里 。有时流到很逼狭的境界，两岸 丛山叠岭，绝壁断崖 ，江河流于其间， 回环曲折，极其险峻 。（张培基，1999：1）
A mighty long river sometimes flows through a broad section with plains lying boundless on either side ， its waters rolling on non-stop for tens of thousands of miles .Sometimes it comes up against a narrow section flanked by high mountains and steep cliffs ，winding through a course with many a perilous twist and turn .（ibid.：3）
Example 25 contains seven four-character expressions，which sound smooth，forceful and rhythmical，forming a neat and powerful flow of expressions.Four-character phrases，which include idioms and non-fixed phrases，are typical Chinese linguistic forms.They are widely employed in Chinese prose.In contrast，there are no such phrases in English.Accordingly，Professor Zhang translated the four-character phrases in the example by means of domestication.“浩浩荡荡”is translated as “mighty”；“平原无际”is rendered as a prepositional phrase “with plains lying boundless on either side”；“一泻万里”is handled by means of an absolute nominative construction “its waters rolling on non-stop for tens of thousands of miles”；“丛山叠岭”and “绝壁断崖”are generalized as “high mountains and steep cliffs”；“回环曲折”and “极其险峻”are translated as “with many a perilous twist and turn”.Clearly，all the four-character phrases in the example are domesticated in the version.Obviously，the translation，which comprises additional words such as prepositions and pronouns，differs from the original in form.As the translator had a good grasp of the meaning expressed by each of the four-character phrases and of the whole original context，he translated them as proper and vivid phrases and structures in the target language，thus rendering the translated example faithful，fluid，and natural.
26 立时那些枝叶都“ 悉悉索索 ”地颤抖起来。草底下的秋虫，发出连续的 唧唧 声，我的心感到 一阵阵的凄冷 ；不敢向前去，找到路旁一张长木凳坐下。（张培基，2007：1）
There was a rustle and tremor of branches in the trees.The autumn insects were chirping incessantly in the grass.I was suddenly seized with fits of sadness and，being too afraid to move on，I sat down on a long wooden bench by the wayside.（ibid.：4）
Example 26 includes three reduplicated expressions：“悉悉索索”“唧唧”，and “一阵阵”，which respectively belong to AABB type，AA type，and ABB type.“悉悉索索”is an onomatopoeic expression used to describe the sound of branches，and here it is rendered as “a rustle”.“唧唧”is also an onomatopoeic word used to describe the sound of insects.The verb phrase “were chirping”is used to reproduce the sound of “唧唧”.“一阵阵”lays emphasis on the writer's sad feeling.The meaning of “一阵阵”and that of “凄冷”it modifies are both conveyed by a vivid metaphorical phrase “seized with fits of sadness”.All the above three reduplicated expressions are domesticated in the version，for there are no corresponding reduplicated expressions in English.Also，definite and indefinite articles and the coordinator “and”are employed in proper places，thus helping the version domesticated.In addition，the last sentence of the version contains a present participle structure，rendering the cause-effect relationship clear.In brief，the domesticated version of example 26 is faithful，fluent，graphical，and quite acceptable.
One of the outstanding features in modern Chinese is the frequent employment of disyllables and quadrisyllables.As a result，reduplication of Chinese characters，repetition of words and expressions，four-character expressions，and parallelism of syllables，words，phrases and sentence structures have become popular Chinese grammatical and rhetorical devices （连淑能，2006）.Four-character phrases and reduplicated words in Chinese are always domesticated through the use of equivalent English expressions.There are adequate reasons for their domestication.First，there are no such linguistic phenomena in English.Second，as four-character expressions and reduplicated words are mainly employed to enhance formal and poetic beauty of rhythm and strengthen artistic conception and arouse aesthetic feeling，emphasis is laid on the reproduction of aesthetic effects，when they are translated.When we translate English texts into Chinese texts，we must pay attention to this particular feature of Chinese.As English and Chinese manifest differences in many aspects，especially at the textual level，we are required to employ the domesticating strategy as the dominating method when we translate texts from English into Chinese or vice versa，so that we may produce fluent，idiomatic，smooth，and satisfactory versions，which can be seen very clearly from the examples discussed above.
Foreignization，as a major translation strategy，is widely applied in translation.Let's analyze the examples below.
27 Wisdom is better than rubies.智慧胜过红宝石。∥You can't get blood from a stone.你不能从石头里挤出血来。∥Variety is the spice of life.多样化是生活的调味品。∥In the country of the blind，the one-eyed man is king.盲人国里，独眼人称王。∥Let another's shipwreck be your seamark.别人的沉船就是你的航标。
The English idioms listed above are unique，vivid cases of metaphor.They all express a profound meaning.They are all enlightening to the readers.Translation of idioms means not only translation of linguistic signs but also that of cultural implications.Obviously，they are all translated into Chinese by means of foreignization.Thus，the forms，images，and figurative meanings of the English idioms are all preserved in the foreignized idioms，which are fresh and picturesque and equally enlightening to the target language readers.They are easily acceptable and very impressive and really unforgettable.In fact，numerous English idioms are rendered into Chinese by means of foreignization，thus immensely enriching the Chinese language and rendering the Chinese culture more colorful.
28 死虎在 衙门 里躺了一天，才被剥了皮肢解了。（张培基，2007：176）
The dead tiger lay in yamen for a whole day till it was skinned and dismembered.（ibid.：180）
29 没有笑声，没有话语。只有雨声： 滴——滴——滴 。（张培基，1999：104）
No more smile，no more chitchat.Only the drip drip drip of rain.（ibid.：108）
“衙门”in example 28 refers to a government office in feudal China.Professor Zhang transliterated “衙门”as yamen ，which actually has found its way into English.As we know，transliteration is a kind of foreignization，through which yamen has become familiar to Western readers.Now， yamen can be considered as a loanword from Chinese.Obviously，the transliteration of “衙门”as yamen is a case of application of foreignization.
Example 29 contains two short sentences.The two translated sentences are elliptical ones.“Only the drip drip drip of rain”，which is foreignized，seems unusual in English，but it directly reproduces the original sound “滴——滴——滴”and prompts readers to get used to it.
30 它不是乡村的陋巷， 湫隘破败，泥泞坎坷，杂草乱生，两旁还排列着错落的粪缸。 它也不是上海的里弄， 鳞次栉比的人家，拥挤得喘不过气；小贩憧憧来往，黝黯的小门边，不时走出一些趿着拖鞋的女子，头发乱似临风飞舞的秋蓬，眼睛里布满红丝，脸上残留着不调和的隔夜脂粉，颓然地走到 老虎灶 上去提水。 也不像北地的胡同， 满目尘土，风起处刮着弥天的黄沙。（张培基，1999：345）
The lane has nothing in common with mean rural alleys ，which are narrow and low-lying，muddy，and bumpy，overgrown with wild weeds and lined here and there with manure vats. Nor has it anything in common with lilong （ meaning alleys ） in Shanghai ，which are literally packed with dwellings and residents.Over there，you will see vendors hawking their wares here and there.From time to time，women are seen emerging from inside some dingy small gates and shuffling languidly in their slippers towards a laohuzao ， the shop selling boiled water ，their hair disheveled like wind-blown withered grass in autumn，their eyes blood-shot，their faces betraying traces of overnight make-up. Nor has the lane anything in common with hutong （ also meaning alleys ） in North China ，which is dusty on every side，especially when a wind rises.（ibid.：351）
Example 30 describes the lane by contrasting it with different kinds of lanes.This example presents a clear three-layer structure by employing “它不是……它也不是……也不像……”.Each layer describes one kind of lanes as a contrast.The second layer involves more descriptions of “ lilong in Shanghai”.Professor Zhang employs three contrastive structures：“The lane has nothing in common with ...Nor has it anything in common with ...Nor has the lane anything in common with ...”.These negative structures of contrast which appear in three different places keep the original parallelism and reflect the original style.Moreover，this example contains culture-loaded words as well，like “里弄”“老虎灶”，and “胡同”.“里弄”is rendered as lilong ，“老虎灶”as laohuzao ，and “胡同”as hutong ，each of which is given an explanation.Clearly，all of them are foreignized by means of transliteration.Obviously，example 30 is rendered or translated partly by means of foreignization，as the original notable parallel structures and culture-loaded expressions are retained in the version in a flexible manner.
It is to be noted that in example 30 only the underlined parts are rendered into English by means of foreignization；all the other parts that are not underlined are translated into the target language by means of domestication.In fact，foreignization，as a major translation strategy，is applied mainly at the lexical and syntactical levels；it is not often employed at the textual level.Since Chinese is a parataxis-oriented language，while English is a hypotaxis-oriented language，in order to make the translated text well acceptable，domestication instead of foreignization is much more often applied at the textual level.
We have found that domestication is much more often employed than foreignization.This section provides integrated analysis of a passage to prove if domestication is really the dominating strategy for translation.
The passage here was selected from “Autumn in Peiping”（张培基，1999：204-205），a typical Chinese essay written by Yu Dafu （郁达夫，1896-1945）.It describes a special autumn in North China and shows the author's nostalgia of autumn in his hometown.The translated passage was taken from the same source （208-209）.
To facilitate analysis，the sentences in the source passage and those in the version are numbered in sequence.
31 《故都的秋》 Autumn in Peiping
①秋天，无论在什么地方的秋天， 总是好的 ； 可是啊，北国的秋，却特别地来得清，来得静，来得悲凉 。② 我的不远千里 ，要从杭州赶上青岛，更要从青岛赶上北平来 的理由，也不过想饱尝一尝这“秋”，这故都的秋味 。
（a）Autumn，wherever it is， always has something to recommend itself ； however ， in North China ， it is particularly limpid ， serene ， and melancholy .（b） It is just in order to enjoy its atmosphere to the fullest in the onetime capital that I have made light of travelling a long distance from Hangzhou to Qingdao，and thence to Peiping.
③江南，秋当然也是有的；但草木凋得慢，空气来得润，天的颜色显得淡，并且又时常多雨而少风； 一个人夹在 苏州上海杭州，或厦门香港广州的市民中间， 浑浑沌沌地过去，只能感到一点点清凉，秋的味，秋的色，秋的意境与姿态，总看不饱，尝不透，赏玩不到十足。 ④秋并不是名花，也并不是美酒， 那一种半开、半醉的状态，在领略秋的过程上，是不合适的。
（c-1）There is of course autumn in the South，too，but over there plants wither slowly，the air smells moist，the sky looks pallid，and it is more often rainy than windy.（c-2） While muddling along all alone respectively among residents of Suzhou，Shanghai，and Hangzhou，or among those of Xiamen，Hong Kong，and Guangzhou， a person feels nothing but a little chill in the air ， without ever relishing to his or her heart ' s content the flavor ， color ， mood ， or style of the season .（d）Unlike famous flowers which are most attractive when half opening ，or good wine which is most tempting when one is half drunk ， autumn ， however ， is best appreciated in its entirety .
⑤不逢北国之秋，已将近十余年了。⑥ 在南方 每年到了秋天， 总要想起陶然亭的芦花，钓鱼台的柳影，西山的虫唱，玉泉的夜月，潭柘寺的钟声 。⑦在北平即使不出门，就是在皇城人海之中，租人家一椽破屋来住着， 早晨起来，泡一碗浓茶，向院子一坐，你也能看得到很高很高的碧绿的天色，听得到青天下驯鸽的飞声 。⑧从槐树叶底，朝东细数着一丝一丝漏下来的日光，或在破壁腰中，静对着像喇叭似的牵牛花（朝荣）的蓝朵， 自然而然地也能够感觉到十分的秋意 。⑨说到牵牛花，我以为以蓝色或白色者为佳，紫黑色次之，淡红色最下。⑩ 最好，还要在牵牛花底，教长着几根疏疏落落的尖细且长的秋草，使作陪衬 。
（e）It is more than a decade since I last saw autumn in the North.（f） When I am in the South ，with the arrival of each autumn， I invariably think of Peiping ' s Taoran Pavilion with its reed catkins ， Diaoyutai with its shady willow trees ， Western Hills with chirping insects ， Yuquan Mountain on a moonlit evening ， and Tanzhe Temple with its reverberating bell .（g）While living in Peiping，even if you stay at home，or put up in a humble rented house in the bustling imperial city， after getting up at dawn ， you can leisurely watch the azure high sky and hear the sound of tame pigeons circling overhead ， while sitting in the courtyard and sipping a cup of strong tea .（h）Saunter eastward under locust trees to closely observe streaks of sunlight filtering through their foliage，or quietly watch the trumpet-shaped blue flowers of morning glories climbing half way up a dilapidated wall，and an intense feeling of autumn will of itself well up inside you .（i）As to morning glories，I like their blue or white flowers best，dark purple ones second best，and pink ones third best.（j） It will be most desirable to have them set off by some tall thin grass planted underneath here and there .
There are ten sentences in the source passage above.Except sentence ③，which is rendered as two sentences，as can be seen from （c-1）and （c-2），all the other sentences are translated on a one-to-one basis.It is to be noted that the chief compiler of this textbook made slight alterations in some translated sentences.Let's analyze the ten sentences one by one.
In sentence ①，there is a commonly used Chinese adjective “好的”，which has various meanings.Professor Zhang did not literally render “好的”into “good”.Instead，he rendered it as “always has something to recommend itself”，an idiomatic English expression which adequately conveys the meaning of “好的”in the specific context.The translation of “好的”here is a case rendered by means of domestication.The second clause of sentence ① consists of three coordinate predicates “却特别地来得清，来得静，来得悲凉”，which are employed to describe the special，dynamically static features of autumn in North China in a vivid manner.Professor Zhang rendered them by using three static adjectives “limpid，serene，and melancholy”modified by “particularly”，the use of which erases the series of acts of “来得……来得……来得……”in the original，but is in conformity with the usage of English.As we know，English is more static，for more nouns，more adjectives，and more prepositions are used in English texts，while Chinese is more dynamic，for more verbs are employed in Chinese texts.Therefore，the three parallel predicates are rendered properly through use of domestication.
Obviously，sentence ② is rendered by means of domestication，too.Sentence （b），which assumes the form of an emphatic sentence pattern，is different in structure from the second sentence in the source passage，but is very faithful or very close to it in meaning.It is a typical case of functional equivalence.
Sentence ③，which includes three coordinating parts，is represented by two long English sentences，as can be seen from （c-1）and （c-2）.Evidently，the first two parts are foreignized in the version，and the third part，which is made up of several coordinating clauses，is turned into a complex sentence.Having made a deep analysis of the clauses and gained a good grasp of the logical relations between them，Professor Zhang translated the third part quite logically and wonderfully well by rearranging the clauses properly.Also，from this translated part we can see clearly that the reduplicated expression “浑浑沌沌”in the source sentence is translated as “muddling along”，and the three dynamic phrases “总看不饱，尝不透，赏玩不到十足”are rendered in an integrated manner into a long prepositional phrase “without ever relishing to his or her heart's content ...”.Obviously，the third part of sentence ③ is handled by means of domestication.So，it is not difficult to see that sentence ③，which is well translated，is partially foreignized and partly domesticated.
Sentence ④ is also translated basically by means of domestication.Sentence ④ implies that autumn cannot be appreciated in the same way as famous flowers or good wines.It is a negative sentence.Professor Zhang did not directly translate it.Instead，he reproduced the implicit meaning of the sentence by rendering it into an affirmative sentence.This kind of translation embodies the flexible application of domestication.
Sentence ⑤ is a simple sentence with an implicit subject.It is translated into a complex English sentence，with “it”added as the subject of the main clause and “I”added as the subject of the subordinate clause.The translated sentence，which assumes the form of an idiomatic sentence pattern，can be said to be domesticated.
Sentence ⑥ is a typical no-subject sentence.“在南方”is rendered as “When I am in the South”.The main part of sentence ⑥ is basically rendered by means of foreignization，for such unique things as “陶然亭的芦花，钓鱼台的柳影，西山的虫唱，玉泉的夜月，潭柘寺的钟声”are kept in the translated sentence，although they are slightly domesticated in terms of the mode of their expression.
Sentence ⑦ is a complex sentence with several clauses.It is translated into an extremely complex sentence，with a complicated principal clause and three adverbial clauses properly arranged.The translated sentence is faithful to the original one.A careful observation tells us that sentence ⑦ is translated by means of both foreignization and domestication.
Sentence ⑧ is also a complex sentence，which consists of three clauses.The first two are coordinate clauses which，though in the form of imperative sentences，actually function as clauses of condition；the third is the main clause of effect or result.By applying foreignization，Professor Zhang rendered the first two clauses into two coordinating imperative sentences，which are likewise clauses of condition.However，he rendered the third clause （the main one）into a vivid one with “an intense feeling ...”as the subject，in which “well up”is used metaphorically.Thus，the third clause is domesticated.It is not difficult to see that the translation of sentence ⑧ reflects a combination of foreignization and domestication.
Sentence ⑨ is translated literally into the target language.Its translation，which is well done，needs not be discussed here.
Sentence ⑩ is rendered into an idiomatic English sentence，which is easily comprehensible and exceptionally faithful.Also，it is a case handled mainly by means of domestication.
Clearly，of the ten sentences in the source passage given above，sentences ①，②，④，⑤，and ⑩ are handled by means of domestication，i.e.50% of the sentences are domesticated；sentence ⑥ is foreignized，accounting for 10%；sentences ③，⑦，and ⑧ are rendered by means of flexible application of both domestication and foreignization；sentence ⑨ is translated by means of the literal strategy.
Why is the domesticating strategy used much more frequently？As far as we can see，there are several reasons.
Firstly，there are many unique expressions in Chinese which can be understood by target readers only when they are domesticated.For instance，four-character phrases and reduplicated words are frequently employed in Chinese texts，but they have no counterparts in English.In Chinese，they are often used for poetic and formal beauty or for repetition and emphasis of meaning.If they are translated by means of foreignization，the versions will become wordy and even turn out to be grammatically wrong，which may confuse target readers.Therefore，in Professor Zhang's translated works，they are mainly translated by means of domestication.
Syntactic differences between Chinese and English are another reason.Chinese is a parataxis-oriented language，while English a hypotaxis-oriented language.Parataxis emphasizes coherence in meaning while hypotaxis highlights cohesion of words and sentences.Normally，there are many Chinese sentences which consist of several clauses that are just arranged together logically without any conjunctions，but such run-on sentences are grammatically unacceptable in English.Therefore，domestication is much more frequently applied，especially in translation of run-on Chinese sentences with lots of clauses.
Thirdly，English versions are mainly intended to be read by Western readers who are more interested in absorbing ideas and meaning of the translated texts.The versions done mostly by means of domestication are quite idiomatic，natural，and smooth，and thus much more acceptable.
Foreignization is often used as a complementary strategy for translation of culture-loaded words or cultural elements.Foreignization，though used less often，is quite necessary or essential.It helps to reproduce in target texts cultural and linguistic differences in source texts.
In many cases，it is necessary to apply the two strategies simultaneously in order to bring about better or more desirable versions.
Therefore，it can be asserted that as two main translation strategies，domestication and foreignization are both commonly employed to ensure the good quality of a version，but comparatively speaking，domestication is much more often applied in translation and may well be referred to as the dominating translation strategy.
Translation and Liberal Translation Foreignization and domestication are two terms invented by Venuti and defined as two general translation strategies，while literal translation and liberal translation are also two terms regarded as two commonly used translation strategies.When foreignization and domestication were first introduced into China，many researchers thought that these two terms were equal to literal translation and liberal translation.However，with studies deepening，many scholars began to consider the differences between the two pairs of translation strategies.
As far as we know，current studies by Chinese scholars on these two pairs of translation strategies can be classified into three groups.
Researchers of the first group regard foreignization and domestication as counterparts of literal translation and liberal translation.Sun Zhili （2002：40）points out，“Foreignization is generally equivalent to literal translation，and domestication is generally equivalent to free translation.”Zhang Meifang （张美芳）（2001）asserts that foreignization and domestication are generally similar to literal translation and liberal translation.
Researchers of the second group argue that literal translation and free translation focus on the linguistic level，while foreignization and domestication involve cultural factors as well as linguistic factors.Wang Dongfeng （2002）emphasizes that foreignization and domestication，which could be considered as the extended counterparts of literal translation and free translation，are not completely equivalent to the latter.He maintains that literal translation and free translation focus on the linguistic level，while foreignization and domestication extend the discussion on the linguistic level to cultural，poetic，and political levels.
Researchers of the third group focus on the category studies.They mostly maintain that literal translation and free translation are translation methods，while foreignization and domestication are translation strategies，and that foreignization and domestication as translation strategies comprise literal translation and free translation.Typical researchers of this group include Liu Yanli，Yang Zijian，Wu Jianfen，and Wang Jianguo.
As far as we can see，foreignization/domestication and literal translation/liberal translation are two pairs of frequently employed translation strategies which are somewhat similar to each other.The main difference between the two is that literal translation is much more extensively applied than foreignization，and that domestication is by far more widely employed than liberal translation.All kinds of sentences or texts with or without linguistic and cultural differences can be translated by means of literal translation and/or liberal translation，or literal-plus-liberal translation，while application of foreignization and domestication is confined to translation of only those with linguistic and cultural differences.Macroscopically，it may be asserted that literal translation covers a much wider scope than foreignization，while domestication is by far more generally employed than liberal translation.The reasons are very clear.There are numerous sentences in the original which have their corresponding counterparts in the target language and which are just transplanted into the version.Also，there are so many unique expressions and sentences in the original that can be rendered through literal translation into novel and intelligible ones in the version.There are only some unique parts in the original that had better be translated by means of foreignization.Domestication is applied as the dominating strategy，because only domesticated versions are readable and acceptable to the readers.
So far，we have discussed and proved two sets of translation strategies.Normally，whenever we do translation，it is feasible or enough for us to act on one set of translation strategies；generally，we need not abide by the two sets of translation strategies simultaneously.Translation involves at least two languages and two cultures，which are similar and dissimilar in many aspects.Proper choice and proper application of translation strategies can help us produce desirable translated texts.Nowadays，there is a tendency to employ the literal translation strategy as the most general one，and to apply the liberal translation strategy as the supplementary one，which can help us produce versions that are more in conformity to the nature of translation and to the generally accepted translation principles.As for domestication and foreignization，though some scholars vigorously advocate application of foreignization in translation，yet actually，domestication functions as the dominating strategy，as can be seen in translated literature.Why？Because Chinese and English differ a great deal in many aspects and only by adopting domestication can we ensure that the version is fluent，readable，and understandable.
Ⅰ.Answer the questions below.
1.How are literal translation and liberal translation defined？
2.How are “foreignization”and “domestication”defined？
3.Why is the literal translation approach more commonly employed？
4.Give examples to show the literal-plus-liberal translation approach.
5.Why is domestication more often employed？
Ⅱ.Translate the following into Chinese by using the literal translation approach.
1.Our big bird can be fed even at night.（Ad of France Airlines）
2.Kodak is Olympic color.（Ad of Kodak）
3.Light as a breeze，soft as a cloud.（Ad of clothes）
4.Breakfast without orange juice is like a day without sunshine.（Ad of orange juice）
5.Flowers speak from the heart.（Ad of a flower shop）
6.Challenge the limits.（Ad of SAMSUNG）
7.Walk in Britain in Style
Enjoy a relaxed，escorted walking tour through idyllic village and countryside.
Stay at character，country hotels.
See the real Britain close-up.
8.For parrots，wild orchids，and exotic fruits，come to sunny Middlesex.Middlesex，Jamaica，is a world apart from Middlesex，England.The annual temperature is around 80.The birds in the trees are a shade more exotic.There are hundreds of tropical flowers that you'll find nowhere on earth but in Jamaica.
Ⅲ.Translate the following into Chinese by using the liberal translation approach.
1.Think again.Think Canon.（Canon Camera）
2.All is well that ends well.（Ad of a cigarette）
3.Good to the last drop.（Ad of a drink）
4.Apple thinks different.（Apple Computer）
5.Hide from risk and you hide from its rewards.（Ad of Americans in business）
6.This is the Sheraton Bal Harbour Resort.Where the days hesitate to end，and the memories linger forever.
Ⅳ.Translate the following into Chinese by using the literal-plus-liberal approach.
1.Where there is a will，there is a way.Where there is a way，there is Toyota.
2.You're better off under the umbrella.（Travelers）
3.No problem too large.No business too small.（IBM）
4.Give a Timex to all，and to all a good time.（Timex Watch）
5.A diamond is forever.（Ad of a diamond）
6.Whatever makes you happy.（Credit Suisse）
7.Begin your own tradition.（Patek Philippe Watch）
8.I remember the special look on your face the day you walked down the aisle.（Ad of a wedding ring）
Ⅴ.Translate the following into English by using the literal translation approach.
1.她工作，你休息。（洗衣机）
2.非常可乐，非常选择。（非常可乐饮料）
3.为您提供美，为您提供乐，为您提供爱，为您提供趣。（《故事会》）
4.买电视就要买金星，买金星就是买放心！（金星彩电）
5.眉笔像花瓣一样柔和。（眉笔）
6.像母亲的手一样柔软。（童鞋）
7.一册在手，纵览全球。（《环球》杂志）
8.中国河南——功夫的摇篮。（旅游广告）
Ⅵ.Translate the following into English by using the liberal or literal-plus-liberal approach.
1.输入千言万语，奏出一片深情。（文字处理机）
2.经历了一年的风风雨雨，极限……不断成熟，不断完善，创造出了卓越的业绩。（极限喷绘机）
3.皮张之厚无以复加；利润之薄无以复减。（上海鹤鸣皮鞋厂）
4.随身的绿荫。（爱萝莉护肤膏）
5.甜甜蜜蜜，无限爱恋尽在其中。（饮料）
6.园内的小溪虽占地不多，却同小桥与石屿相得益彰，浑然一体。
7.但愿人长久，千里共婵娟。
Ⅶ.In the following source passage there are ten sentences which are numbered，and in the corresponding translated passage the sentences are likewise numbered.You are supposed to study them carefully and point out which sentences are translated by means of domestication，which ones by means of foreignization and which of them by applying the two strategies together flexibly.
（1）北国的槐树，也是一种能使人联想起秋来的点缀。（2）像花而又不是花的那一种落蕊，早晨起来，会铺得满地。（3）脚踏上去，声音也没有，气味也没有，只能感出一点点极微细极柔软的触觉。（4）扫街的在树影下一阵扫后，灰土上留下来的一条条扫帚的丝纹，看起来既觉得细腻，又觉得清闲，潜意识下并且还觉得有点儿落寞，古人所说的梧桐一叶而天下知秋的遥想，大约也就在这些深沉的地方。
（5）秋蝉的衰弱的残声，更是北国的特产；因为北平处处全长着树，屋子又低，所以无论在什么地方，都听得见它们的啼唱。（6）在南方是非要上郊外或山上去才听得到的。（7）这秋蝉的嘶叫，在北平可和蟋蟀耗子一样，简直像是家家户户都养在家里的家虫。
（8）还有秋雨哩，北方的秋雨，也似乎比南方的下得奇，下得有味，下得更像样。
（9）在灰沉沉的天底下，忽而来一阵凉风，便息列索落地下起雨来了。（10）一层雨过，云渐渐地卷向了西去，天又晴了， 太阳又露出脸来 了；穿着很厚的青布单衣或夹袄的都市闲人，咬着烟管，在雨后的斜桥影里，上桥头树底下去一立，遇见熟人，便会用缓慢悠闲的声调，微叹着互答着地说：
“唉，天可真凉了——”
“可不是么？一层秋雨一层凉了！”（转引自张培基，1999：205）
（1）Locust trees in the North，as a decorative embellishment of nature，also associate us with autumn.（2）On getting up early in the morning，you will find the ground strewn all over with flower-like pistils fallen from locust trees.（3）When they are underfoot，they remain quiet and smell-less，and they only feel tiny and soft.（4-1）After a street cleaner sweeps the ground under the shade of locust trees，you will discover countless lines left by the broom in the dust，which look so fine and quiet that somehow a feeling of forlornness will begin to creep up on you.（4-2）The same depth of implication is found in the ancient saying that a single fallen leaf from a wutong tree is enough to inform the world of autumn's presence.
（5）The sporadic feeble chirping of cicadas is especially characteristic of autumn in the North.Due to the abundance of trees and the low altitude of abodes in Peiping，cicadas are audible in every nook and cranny of the city.（6）In the South，however，one cannot hear them unless in suburbs or on hills.（7）These insects in Peiping make such shrill noise here and there that they seemed to be living in every household just like crickets or mice.
（8）As for autumn rains in the North，they also seem to differ from those in the South，being more appealing，more temperate.
（9）Along with a sudden gust of cool wind under the slaty sky，raindrops start to fall pitter-pattering.（10-1）Soon the rain is over，the clouds gradually roll towards the west，and the sun comes out in the blue sky.（10-2）Some idle residents，wearing lined or unlined clothes made of thick black cloth，will come out，pipe in mouth and，loitering under a tree by the end of a bridge，exchange leisurely conversation with acquaintances with a slight touch of regret at the passage of time.
“Oh，real nice and cool ...”
“Sure！It's getting cooler with each autumn shower！”（ibid.：209-211）
（Written by Tan Weiguo）