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Translation is governed by rules.Professor Tan Zaixi points out that translators and translation theorists get to recognize translation rules through much practice and derive from them general principles that can function as a guide for translation or for assessing the quality of what is translated （2000：285）.To produce ideal versions，we need good principles to guide us in the process of translation as well as good criteria for us to use for assessing the quality of our versions.Therefore，all principles of translation and criteria for translation must have this double function.
Translation principles are rules that govern a translator's practice.They serve as norms for his work.We translators are always guided by translation principles.We act upon them when we translate something.They have been explored and summarized by translation scholars through plenty of practice.They reflect the internal rules or laws of translation.Translation principles are objective，scientific，and widely applicable.Principles of translation and criteria for translation are actually identical in essence.As far as we can see，the only difference between the two terms lies in the fact that the former is observed from the perspective of the translator，while the latter is examined from the angle of the translation critic.While doing translation，the translator is guided by principles of translation.While criticizing，appraising，or evaluating translated works，the critical scholar abides by the criteria or standards for assessing the quality of a translation version.It is to be noted that the critical scholar may refer to a translation critic or a translator.
Whether in the East or in the West，traditional translation theories have always highlighted the importance of faithfulness，which is regarded as the most essential translation principle.
Translation theorists at home and abroad have proposed various principles of translation.Summarizing the practice of many translators，Savory offers a number of principles of translation.Some of them are listed below.
1）A translation must reproduce the words of the source language text.
2）A translation must reproduce the ideas （meaning）of the source language text.
3）A translation should read like an original work.
4）A translation should read like a translation.
5）A translation should reflect the style of the original.
6）A translation should possess the style of the translator.
7）A translation should retain the historical stylistic dimension of the source language text.
8）A translation should read as a contemporary piece of literature.
9）A translation may add to or omit from the original.
10）A translation may never add to or omit from the original.
11）A translation should let the readers of the source language text and those of the target language text have essentially the same response.
12）A translation should convey what the source language text author intends to convey.
13）A translation should satisfy the need of the client.（Savory，2002）
Evidently，though each of the above statements is right in a certain sense，yet it is not adequate or comprehensive enough to serve as a translation principle.Some of the principles proposed by various translation theorists can find their expression in the statements given above.Interlinear translation is an illustration of the first statement.Yan Fu（严复）'s triple principle of translation can be a combination of statements 2，3，and 6.Nida's functional equivalence is best expressed in statement 11.In what follows，some influential principles of translation are introduced and discussed one by one.
In 1789，George Campbell （1719-1796），a figure of the Scottish Enlightenment，known as a philosopher，minister，and professor of divinity，was the first to raise three principles of translation，which are given below.
1）The first thing ...is to give a just representation of the sense of the original.2）The second thing is to convey into his version，as much as possible，the author's spirit and manner.3）The third and last thing is to take care that the version should be as easy and natural as the source text.（1789）（一是忠实地再现原文的意义；二是尽可能把作者的神韵和表达方式再现于译文中；三是确保译文像原文一样流畅易懂。）
In the following year，Alexander Fraser Tytler （1747-1813），a Scottish advocate，judge，writer，and historian，pointed out in his “Essay on the Principles of Translation”（1790）that a good translation could transplant the advantages of the source text into another language completely and thoroughly.The following are his three principles contained in his essay.
1）The translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work.
2）The style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original.
3）The translation should have all the ease of original composition.（Tytler，1790）
1）译文应该完全保留原作的思想；
2）译文风格和措辞方式应当跟原作保持同一性质；
3）译文应该具备原创作品的流畅易懂。
The two scholars mentioned above both emphasize that the translated text should be faithful to the original content and to the original style，and that the language in the translated text should be as expressive and smooth or easily understandable as the original.Of the two sets of the three principles，the first point in each set of three principles，of course，is the most important，and the other two supplement the first.Therefore，the three points in either of the two sets of the three principles constitute an organic unity.Clearly，both sets of the three principles are precise in diction and scientific in narration.Both highlight that the translator should preserve the original content，keep the original style，and retain the original expressiveness.In other words，the translated text should reflect everything in the original as much as possible.
Nida maintains that translation is not only an art but also a science （1964）.
Nida has been frequently studied and quoted since he was introduced to the circle of translators in China in the early 1980s.He has been well known for his principle of translation referred to as “dynamic equivalence”or “functional equivalence”.His dynamic equivalence is viewed as a translation principle，according to which the translator seeks to translate the meaning of the original in such a way that the target language text will produce the same impact on the target text audience as the original does upon the source text audience.Later on，Nida changed “dynamic equivalence”into “functional equivalence”，because it seemed much more satisfactory to use “functional equivalence”in describing the degree of adequacy of a translation.
Nida has been very popular among translation theorists and translators in China.His popularity and prestige in China owe much to Tan Zaixi，a well-known professor in China who has published some papers and books on Nida's theory of translation.
Skopos Theory （目的论），which belongs to German functionalism，was introduced into translation theories in the 1970s by Hans J.Vermeer as a technical term for the purpose of translation （1987：25-33）.Professor Zhong Weihe （仲伟合）and Zhong Yu （钟钰）introduced it to Chinese scholars in 1999.Breaking with the traditional linguistic translation theories，it treats translation as a purposeful activity and focuses on the purpose of translation.
There are three rules in Skopos Theory：1）The top-ranking rule is the Skopos rule，which holds that a translational action is determined by its Skopos.Though most translational actions have more than one purpose to achieve，they usually follow a hierarchical order.The translator，as a decision-maker，should know which particular purpose is the most important one for him to carry out in a translational process.The Skopos rule gives the translator a new perspective to decide which strategy will be employed in the whole process （Nord，2001）.2）The second rule is the Coherence rule.It stipulates that the traget text must be translated in such a way that it is coherent for the traget text receivers，given their circumstances and knowledge （ibid.：79）.This means that the receivers should be able to understand it and the target text should make sense in the communicative situation and culture in which it is received.3）The third rule is the Fidelity rule.This rule stresses the inter-textual coherence between the traget text and the source text.More specifically，the source text information received by the translator，the interpretation of this information made by the translator and the information that is encoded for the traget text receivers should be consistent with each other.
Skopos Theory has been widely influential in China.It proves to be feasible mainly for translation of practical texts such as tourism texts，advertising texts，etc.
Strictly speaking，a translation theory in its true sense in China originated from Yan Fu.He proposed the famous triple principle of translation，namely faithfulness （信），expressiveness （达），and normativeness （雅）（2009）.His “faithfulness”means that the translated text should be faithful to the original text，i.e.the version should keep the content or meaning of the original.His “expressiveness”means that the translated text should be expressive and coherent without anything awkward.In other words，his “expressiveness”requires that the version itself should be fluid，smooth，and easy to read and understand.His “normativeness”demands that the version itself should be normative，i.e.proper words，expressions，and sentences should be employed in the version in a normative manner，or in accordance with the grammatical rules of the target language.However，it is to be noted that “雅”is understood by many Chinese scholars as “elegance”，which highlights that the version itself must be exquisite and that the style of the version ought to be very graceful.Yan Fu's “信达雅”has exerted considerable influence on translation scholars as well as common people for over a century so that it has been familiar to numerous people.
Nevertheless，there are quite a few scholars or translators represented by Professor Liu Zhongde who approve of Yan Fu's “faithfulness”and “expressiveness”，but argue against his “elegance”（1979）.Their arguments against his “elegance”are as follows：Firstly，as different writers write in different styles，different texts，of course，have different styles.For example，some texts display the formal or written style，others show the graceful or elegant style，and still others demonstrate the informal or colloquial style.Since there are so many different styles，how can “elegance”，which represents only one style，i.e.the elegant style，serve as a principle of translation of the original style？Secondly，all principles must be scientific，objective，and universally applicable，and of course，translation principles ought to be the same；Yan Fu's “elegance”，which is appropriate for translation of elegant texts only，can hardly be said to be scientific，objective，or universally applicable.If the original text is characterized by the vulgar style or by the colloquial style，with a lot of vulgar words or informal words and ungrammatical sentences，how can the translator be guided by “elegance”and render it into a text with the elegant style？However，in spite of the fact that some scholars argue against Yan Fu's “elegance”，yet a great many people in China，including many scholars，still think highly of and adhere to his triple principle of “信达雅”.They argue that his “elegance”means that the version must show artistic value and aesthetic quality.And they still think that “信达雅”is very effective or valid as a principle of literary translation.
As far as it can be seen，Yan Fu's triple principle of translation is feasible mainly for literary translation，including translation of poetry.
Perfection”Fu Lei （傅雷）pointed out，“As far as its effect is concerned，translation should resemble copying paintings so as to realize ‘Spiritual Resemblance’ （神似）instead of seeking formal likeness”（2006）.Qian Zhongshu （钱锺书）remarked that the highest standard for literary translation is “Sublime Perfection”（化境）.While translating a text from one language into another，if you can produce a version which is free from rigid signs that arise from idiomatic differences between the two languages，and which fully retains the exotic flavor of the original，then your version may be said to have reached the state of “Sublime Perfection”（2009）.According to Guo Jianzhong （郭健中），Fu Lei's “Spiritual Resemblance”and Qian Zhongshu's “Sublime Perfection”are the two scholars' viewpoints on translation，which guided，enlightened，and influenced their translation practice （2010）.Since a translator's viewpoint on translation serves as a guide to his practice and exerts much influence on the eventual effect of his translation，in the chief compiler's opinion，“Spiritual Resemblance”and “Sublime Perfection”may be deemed as translation principles or criteria.
Quite a number of scholars tend to think that “Sublime Perfection”is more profound than “Spiritual Resemblance”.Is that so？No.The fact that “Sublime Perfection”assumes a position after “Spiritual Resemblance”does not imply that the former means more than the latter.Take “出神入化”，a vivid Chinese idiom，as an example，“出神”does not mean the first phase，neither does “入化”mean the second phase.“出神入化”is a coordinating phrase consisting of two equal components which share the meaning of “having reached the most wonderful realm or arrived at the highest state”.Figuratively，“出神入化”means that one has scored most wonderful achievements or achieved most brilliant success in literature and art （周领顺，周怡珂，2014）.Similarly，Fu Lei's “Spiritual Resemblance”and Qian Zhongshu's “Sublime Perfection”share the meaning of having reached an extremely wonderful state or attained a super level，or showing consummate skill in an art.Actually，“神似”and “化境”may well be condensed as “神化”，which means the same as “出神入化”.As translation principles or standards，“神似”and “化境”both mean that the version just resembles the source language text in spirit or in meaning，that the version has reached the same wonderful state as the source language text，or that the version shows the translator's most consummate skill.
Therefore，we can conclude that “Spiritual Resemblance”and “Sublime Perfection”may well be regarded as the ideal principle of literary translation or the highest standard for literary assessment.When we engage in literary translation，it is desirable to act upon “神化”，or to take it as a guide to our translation practice.
By referring to Yan Fu's triple principle and Alexander Fraser Tytler's three principles，Professor Liu Zhongde put forward another triple principle of translation，namely faithfulness （信），expressiveness （达），and closeness （切）（1979）.His triple principle retains the first two characters of Yan Fu's.He merely replaced Yan Fu's “elegance”with “closeness”.He particularly emphasized that the style of the translated text should be as close to the original style as possible.He argued eloquently against “elegance”as a principle of translation.As we know，not all works are characterized by the elegant style.Different writers display different styles.For instance，Lenin wrote in the bold style，and Hemingway wrote in the simple，symbolic style.Even the same writer shows different styles on different occasions for different purposes.Naturally，different works demonstrate different styles.Thus，it is impossible and absolutely wrong to achieve the effect of elegance in the translated text if the style of the original is not elegant.
The chief compiler of this textbook is in favor of Professor Liu's triple principle of translation.He changed Yan Fu's “elegance”into “closeness”，which represents his contribution to the translation theories.His “closeness”is central in meaning.It is suitable for translation of all types of texts with different styles.If the original text is characterized by the elegant style，the translator should do his utmost to render it into a graceful text in the target language whose style is close to the original elegant style.If the original style is highly technical with a wealth of technical terms，the translator ought to employ plenty of corresponding technical terms in the target language and make the translated style as close to the original technical style as possible.If the original style is colloquial with a lot of informal words and colloquial sentences，the translator should translate it into a text with an informal style as close as possible to the original one by using many colloquial words and informal sentences.If the original style is ornate，the translator must endeavor to render the translated style as close to the original as possible.If the original text contains vulgar words and sentences，the translator is not entitled to replace them with elegant words or sentences，and he should reproduce the original by using corresponding vulgar words and sentences in the receptor language.Translators are duty-bound to do so，for the simple reason that they are translators.
Moreover，Yan Fu's “达”merely stresses that the version must be highly expressive，fluid，natural，and smooth；it does not consider whether or not the source text is expressive，natural，or smooth.On the contrary，Professor Liu's “达”emphasizes that the version must be as fluid，idiomatic，and smooth as the source text，or almost so，and that if part of the source text is not fluid，natural，or smooth，the version must be rendered similar to the source text.
As we know，Yan Fu's triple principle is highly concise，well rhymed，and quite easy to learn by heart，which is one of the reasons why it is still very popular in China today.Professor Liu's triple principle is similar to Yan Fu's in that it is equally concise and easy to remember.Though Professor Liu's triple principle is not rhymed，yet it is very forceful and impressive，for the Chinese character “切”is uttered in the falling tone，carrying the implication that faithfully conveying the original style or rendering the translated style as close to the original as possible is absolutely necessary and worth the translator's great effort.
Nowadays，quite a number of scholars or translators in China have accepted Professor Liu's triple principle.As far as the chief compiler of this textbook knows，some translators and translation theorists have published academic papers expressing their approval of Liu's triple principle of translation.Some of them highly appraise or assess or evaluate it.The chief compiler believes that Professor Liu's triple principle will become more and more influential and contribute a great deal to the noble cause of translation.
Professor Liu's “信达切”is in essence similar to Tytler's three principles.As a matter of fact，the former is based on the latter.But as far as we can see，there are slight differences between them：One is that the former is more concise and much easier to remember，while the latter is more specific and somewhat difficult to memorize；the other is that Professor Liu's “信达切”is not arranged in the same order as Tytler's three principles，which means the existence of slight difference in their views.
Now let's look at two paragraphs and their versions，and assess their quality in the light of Professor Liu's “信达切”.
1 鲁迅《明天》中的一段：
下半天，棺木才合上盖：因为单四嫂子哭一回，看一回，总不肯死心塌地的盖上；幸亏王九妈等得不耐烦，气愤愤的跑上前，一把拖开她，才七手八脚的盖上了。
Not until that afternoon was the lid of the coffin put on tight，because Fourth Shan's wife cried bitterly several times，and each time she cried，she took a look and would not let the lid closed down.Luckily，Ninth Aunt Wang grew tired of waiting，hurried forward furiously and pulled her aside.Only then did they hastily close it up.（主编译）
Lu Xun （鲁迅），a great writer in China，is well known for his use of pithy and simple language which contains imagery in his novels and stories.His personalized language，gloomy humor，and satirizing remarks cause the readers to wake up and think deeply.In the paragraph of the source text，Fourth Shan's wife “哭一回，看一回”is in a sharp contrast with Ninth Aunt Wang “不耐烦，气愤愤的跑上前，一把拖开”，vividly revealing the temperament of the two characters.The translated paragraph is characterized by accurate and dynamic wording and by employment of appropriate sentences，thus rendering the version faithful，smooth and vividly reproducing the images of the original characters.Thus，it is not difficult to see that the version is produced in light of “信达切”.
2 朱自清《荷塘月色》中的一段：
这几天心里颇不宁静。今晚在院子里坐着乘凉，忽然想起日日走过的荷塘，在这满月的光里，总该另有一番样子吧。
I have been feeling quite upset recently.This evening，I was sitting in the yard，enjoying the cool，when it occurred to me that the Lotus Pond，which I pass by every day，must assume quite a different look under such a full moon.（主编译）
Zhu Ziqing's essays are featured by means of pithy，simple，and meaningful wording as well as vivid sentences.In the Chinese paragraph，“颇不宁静”“忽然想起”“总该另有一番”very aptly express the writer's dynamic state of mind.In the version，pithy，precise，and graphic expressions and appropriate sentences are employed in proper places，vividly depicting the author's psychological activities.The version is aptly close to the original in terms of the selected expressions and sentences and imagery.In brief，the version has been produced in the light of “信达切”.In fact，the translator managed to act upon “信达切”in the process of translation.
The chief compiler of this textbook normally takes “信达切”as a guide to his translation practice.Through plenty of practice，the chief compiler has become fully aware that “信达切”has proved to be feasible for translation of different types of texts.
Professor Xu Yuanchong，an outstanding scholar who is most famous for his translation of Chinese poems into English and French in contemporary China，proposes and verifies the Three-Beauty Principle （三美原则）（beauty in meaning，beauty in sound，beauty in form 意美、音美、形美）（1983；1987；1999）.This principle of his is considered to be the highest standard for translation of poems or verse.
Professor Xu also proposes and proves the principle of “信达优”（1998；1999；2001）.He especially emphasizes in one of his papers：
最好的原文变成对等的译文，并不一定是最好的译文。因为西方文字比较接近，对等的译文容易取得最好的效果。中西文字距离较大，各有优势，对等的译文往往不能取得最好的效果，这时就要发挥译语优势。（1999：8）
The chief compiler of this textbook quite agrees with Professor Xu and believes that his “信达优”is practical for literary translation，and that it is particularly suitable for translation of advertising texts and public signs.
Let's analyze a short poem and an advertising slogan in the light of Professor Xu's principles.
3 Dreams 梦想
James Langston Hughes
Hold fast to dreams 紧紧拥抱梦想
For if dreams die 倘若梦想消亡
Life is a broken-winged bird 生命就像断翅鸟儿
That cannot fly.永远不能飞翔。
Hold fast to dreams 紧紧拥抱梦想
For when dreams go 如果放弃梦想
Life is a barren field 生命犹如荒野
Frozen with snow.在冰雪中埋葬。（主编译）
Example 3 is an exquisite well-rhymed poem imbued with special charm.It is easy to read and understand.The simple，graphic expressions and dynamic，sprightly rhythm in the poem shed light on the theme—the paramount significance of holding fast to dreams.Obviously，the poem is translated by means of the literal method.The version is equally exquisite，appealing to the readers.Clearly，the translated poem conforms to the Three-Beauty Principle in that its two stanzas are perfectly rhymed，being highly rhythmical，that simple，dynamic，and vivid expressions and sentences are properly used，and that the first line of each stanza is repeated，and the two metaphorical clauses in the poem are translated by means of the literal translation strategy so that the images become quite clear and definite and the theme is highlighted to the fullest extent.On the whole，the version is faithful to the original；it is beautiful in meaning，in sound，and in form.
4 Diamond forever.钻石恒久远，一颗永流传。
Example 4 is the famous slogan of an English advertisement that promotes a kind of diamond，which lasts forever and symbolizes eternal love.Evidently，the translated slogan is rendered by means of the literal-plus-liberal translation approach.The version includes two short sentences，which are perfectly rhymed.It is smooth to read and very nice to hear，and so it is very elegant，impressive，and unforgettable.The version is more elegant，more attractive，and more fascinating than the original，for the translator has selected the most artistic way of expression.Certainly，this version is an example of “信达优”.
Professor Zhang Peiji （张培基）and Professor Sun Zhili respectively put forward “faithfulness”（忠实）and “smoothness”（通顺）as translation principles.According to these two scholars，“faithfulness”means that the version must be rendered faithful to the original not only in content or meaning，but also in style；“smoothness”implies that the language in the version must be standard and currently acceptable，that the version should be made easy and smooth to read and understand，and that it must be fluid，natural，and effective.
Professor Sun argues that “faithfulness”and “smoothness”constitute the two major components of a contradictory entity；the two aspects promote and complement each other and they cannot be separated from each other.A faithful version which is not smooth can hardly be said to be really faithful or true to the original.A smooth version which is not faithful is a distorted one，and does more harm than good.Therefore，“faithfulness”and “smoothness”must be handled well simultaneously and treated with care and prudence.And it must be always remembered that “faithfulness”goes first and that “smoothness”is absolutely necessary.A good translator must do his utmost to render the version both faithful and smooth （2011：7）.
As far as the chief compiler of this textbook is concerned，“faithfulness”and “smoothness”may well be followed as a general translation principle，which is appropriate for translation of all kinds of texts with different styles，especially for translation of non-literary texts，such as legal texts，technical texts，medical texts，news texts，business texts，tourism texts，and so on.
So far，we have discussed quite a few influential translation principles.Of course，we have not investigated all the translation principles available.A comparative study of the discussed principles reveals the fact that translation principles are more or less similar to one another in essence，though they are worded，phrased，or expressed in different ways.As a matter of fact，almost all the translation principles proposed at home and abroad lay great stress on “faithfulness”and consider it as the primary norm of fundamental importance.
Undoubtedly，translation principles are to be used or applied flexibly or properly.When we translate something，we must conscientiously allow ourselves to be guided by a certain appropriate principle.Which principle（s）for translation do you prefer？In other words，which one（s）do you think is （are）the most practicable or most universally applicable？This is an open question，to which different translators may give different answers.No matter which translation principle（s）you support or employ，as a translator，you are duty-bound to be faithful to the original in terms of meaning and style，and meanwhile you are supposed to strive for the expressiveness and intelligibility of the translated text.
1.Why did Professor Liu Zhongde disapprove of Yan Fu's “elegance”？
2.How do you interpret Nida's functional equivalence？
3.Which translation principle（s）do you prefer？Why？
4.Study an essay in English and compare its version with the essay.Then you are expected to explore and verify the translation principles involved in the version.
5.What do you think of “信达雅”and “信达优”as translation principles？
6.How do you interpret “Spiritual Resemblance”and “Sublime Perfection”？
（Written by Tan Weiguo）