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Translation studies start along with translation practice.Translation studies are concerned with translation theories，translation techniques，and translation history.In fact，translation studies，which deal with very complex phenomena of translation，are related to different disciplines，such as linguistics，psychology，sociology，cultural anthropology，communication theories，literary criticism，aesthetics，and semiotics.Since the 1960s，translation studies have made great progress along with the rapid development of modern linguistics.Translation theories developed flourishingly in the 20th century，especially in the second half of the 20th century.New theoretical concepts，views and topics have emerged and tended to be more flexible.
Especially since the beginning of the new century，innumerable studies have been published concerning translation theories about the nature of translation，principles of translation or criteria for translation，strategies for translation，standards for evaluating translated texts，etc.，immensely contributing to the construction and development of translatology as a new discipline.Also，in recent years，there have appeared rich studies of such hot topics as the translator's subjectivity and translation context.They have become acceptable and applicable.
Numerous translation studies are，of course，the fruits of many translation scholars at home and abroad.Based on relevant fruits，this chapter briefly discusses the origin and function and various definitions of translation，as well as the nature of translation studies.
Let's first glance over the following long quotation.
Now the whole earth had one language and the same words.And as they migrated eastward，they came upon a plain in the land of Shinar and settled there.And they said to one another，“Come，let us make bricks，and burn them thoroughly.”And they had brick for stone，and bitumen for mortar.Then they said，“Come，let us build ourselves a city，and a tower with its top in the heavens，and let us make a name for ourselves；otherwise we shall be scattered abroad upon the face of the whole earth.”The Lord came down to see the city and the tower，which mortals had built.And the Lord said，“Look，they are one people，and they have all one language；and this is only the beginning of what they will do；nothing that they propose to do will now be impossible for them.Come，let us go down，and confuse their language there，so that they will not understand one another's speech.”So the Lord scattered them abroad from there over the face of all the earth，and they left off building the city.Therefore，it was called Babel，because there the Lord confused the language of all the earth；and from there the Lord scattered them abroad over the face of all the earth.（ Holy Bible ，1995：14）
This is a story from Holy Bible ，Genesis 11，named “The Tower of Babel”，which is quite familiar even to most of us who have only a little knowledge of English.From the story we know that at first people all over the world spoke one language and they could communicate with each other without any obstacles.Since they had no problem in communicating with one another，they could do everything they wanted，even things like building “a tower with its top in the heavens”.However，when the Lord knew the whole thing，he confused their language.As a result，earthly people could not communicate with one another and they gave up their plan of building “The Tower of Babel”in the end.Of course，this is just a story.But the story tells us that language makes it possible for people to communicate with one another freely so as to complete every task in human life.In a certain sense，people who cannot understand one another's speech are unable to carry out their grand plans and are incapable of accomplishing great tasks.In order to help people communicate with and learn from one another，a new career known as translation came into being.
To some extent，we can say that translation had existed since people began to use different languages to communicate with one another.Theodore Savory points out，“Translation is almost as old as original authorship and has a history as honorable and as complex as that of any other branch of literature”（申雨平，2002：4）.However，we have little knowledge of exactly when translation activities began either in China or other places in the world.According to the recorded history，the first translator in Europe was a manumitted Greek slave named Lucius Livius Andronicus，who in about 240 B.C.rendered Homer's Odyssey into Latin version，whereas in China we didn't have any record of translation until the Zhou dynasty （1046-256 B.C.）.In the Zhou dynasty there were different forms of address for translators in different places.“Translators are called Ji in the east， Xiang in the south， Didi in the west，and Yi in the north （东方曰寄，南方曰象，西方曰狄鞮，北方曰译）”（陈福康，2000：3）.Obviously，in the light of the recorded history，translation practice has a very long history both in China and other places in the world.
Since it appeared，macroscopically，translation has played a very important part in the development of many countries.It has helped people better communicate with one another，and in the meantime it has facilitated the development of different cultures and civilizations across the world，such as the sutra translation in China and the Bible translation in Western countries.We are living in an era in which science and technology are developing very rapidly and information is playing an increasingly important role in the economic development and cultural prosperity of many nations.Nowadays，no nation can develop rapidly without communicating with or learning from others.Actually，translation，as a means to bridge different cultures，has been contributing to global economy and cultural development，and China in particular benefits a great deal from translation.As China has become the second largest economy in the world，and as she is playing an increasingly significant role on the world stage，translation，as a noble cause，is bound to exert even more notable influence on human activities and make greater contribution to intercultural communication and human civilization.
Microscopically，translation is closely linked with our life and career.As the world has turned into a global village，we gain immediate access to current affairs or events thanks to translation.Also，through translation，we get to know more about life in different parts of the world.In addition，it is through translation that we can enrich our life.For example，we often read translated stories，novels，and poems，and we frequently see dubbed films or watch dubbed plays and dramas.No matter what you do in the future，you will get involved in translation.For example，if you work as a teacher in the future，you will be required to translate some documents，contracts，or important texts.As you know，many schools in China have established good relations or developed sisterly partnerships with foreign schools.You will have many opportunities to do translation if you are a good translator.For another example，if you work as an employee or a secretary in a joint venture or in a business company，you will be needed to translate various kinds of materials，documents，and projects.If you engage in foreign trade，you will certainly have to do translation quite often.You know that translation is needed in all walks of life.Moreover，translation will help you do your work much better.If you work as a scientist，you will achieve more brilliant success by doing translation.No matter what you engage in in the future，you will benefit immensely if you are able to do translation well.Also，you will make more money if you are an excellent or efficient translator.
In brief，translation is beneficial to us in many ways.It shows multiple functions.
What is translation or how is translation defined？This is an open question，which is open to different answers.In fact，different scholars have defined translation in different ways.Hence there are multiple definitions of translation.Let's glance at a number of definitions of translation below.
Roman Jacobson （1896-1982），a Russian-American linguist and literary theorist，who was among the most influential linguists of the 20th century，classifies translation into intra-lingual translation，inter-lingual translation and inter-semiotic transmutation，which is a definition of translation in its broad sense.
Francis George Steiner（1929-2020），an American literary critic，essayist，writer，and translator，defines translation as follows，“In short，inside or between languages，human communication equals translation”（1998：49）.Though this is a short definition of translation，clearly，it is in its broad sense，for it includes not only translation between two different languages but also translation of different forms inside one and the same language.Moreover，this definition of translation is observed from the perspective of human communication.
André Alphons Lefevere （1945-1996），a translation theorist，pointed out，“An interpretation or translation is any text which makes more understandable what is hardly understood.This holds true not only for translation from one language into another，but also for commentary，explanations of words，notes，paraphrases，meta-phrases，and the like”（1992：86）.Evidently，this is likewise a definition of translation in its broad sense.
As most translation studies are conducted between two different languages，we translators are more concerned about translation in its narrow sense.
J.C.Catford said，“Translation may be defined as the replacement of textual material in one language （the source language）by equivalent textual material in another language （the target language）”（1965：20）.Obviously，this definition of translation is in its narrow sense，and it is observed from the angle of linguistics.
Peter Newmark（1916-2011），a famous British translation theorist，stated，“Translation is rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way that the author intended the text”（1988：5）.This definition is also in its narrow sense and it is examined from linguistics，too.
“Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message，first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style”（Nida & Taber，1969：12）.This definition of translation，which is in its narrow sense，is often quoted by Chinese translation scholars.
“Translation is a process which occurs between cultures rather than simply between languages”（Shuttleworth，1997：35）.This definition is also in its narrow sense，but it is observed from the perspectives of both language and culture.
“For truly successful translating，biculturalism is even more important than bilingualism，since words only have meanings in terms of the cultures in which they function”（Nida，2001：82）.Clearly，this definition of translation highlights the significance of a good knowledge of the two relevant cultures，which is considered to be even more important than a good knowledge of the two languages concerned.Many translators regard translation not only as a transfer of linguistic signs，but also as a communication of cultures，i.e.translation is an intercultural communication.
Professor Sun Zhili（孙致礼），a well-known translator and translation theorist in China，remarks that translation means rendering the meaning of a source text into a target text so as to communicate human ideas and feelings，convey cultural knowledge，and promote human civilizations，as well as to enrich the target language and culture and make them more colorful and prosperous （2011）.Here，Professor Sun highlights the importance of the grand purposes of translation.
Functionalists represented by Mona Baker，an Egyptian professor of translation studies and director of the Centre for Translation and International Studies at The University of Manchester in England，believe that translation is a specific form of human action with a certain purpose，a kind of linguistic service provided to society，and that translators should take into account the needs of the client，the readers，and the purpose of translation （2001）.
In communicative translation，the translator attempts to produce the same effect on the target readers as was produced by the original on the source language readers （Newmark，1981）.Communicative translation is generally oriented towards the needs of the target language readers.A translator who translates communicatively will treat a source text as a message rather than a mere string of linguistic units，and will take care to preserve the original function of the source text and to reproduce its effect on the new audience （Shuttleworth & Cowie，1997）.
By referring to the above-mentioned definitions，the chief compiler of this textbook proposes a definition of translation as follows：Translation is a dynamic communicative process in which the meaning or message of a source language text is reproduced in a target language text in a faithful and natural manner；besides，the translator makes much effort to preserve the cultural information，the general style，effect and function of the source language text in the corresponding target language text；thus，the translator realizes his grand purposes of conveying human ideas and feelings，disseminating cultural knowledge，and enhancing human civilizations，as well as rendering the target language and culture richer，more colorful，and more prosperous.
From the discussion of multiple definitions of translation，we can benefit a great deal.We are greatly enlightened.We have got to know that：
1）whenever we do translation，we must be faithful to the writer of the source text；
2）we must reproduce the content or meaning of the source text in the target text；
3）we must reproduce the cultural information of the source text in the target text；
4）we must convey the effect，function，and style of the source text to the target text.
In terms of its nature or character，translatology is both an art and a science，since it calls for a good command of at least two languages，a flexible application of their rules，and some knowledge of at least two cultures，as well as a good grasp of the necessary translation theories.
In China，the traditional viewpoint about the nature of translation is that translation is an art only.This viewpoint is still maintained by Xu Yuanchong，a well-known professor at Beijing University，and a few other scholars.But more and more Chinese scholars hold the viewpoint that translation studies are not only an art but also a science.Professor Liu Zhongde （刘重德）vigorously advocates that translatology is a science as well as an art.
The chief compiler of this textbook consistently maintains that translation studies are not only an art but also a science.Why do we maintain that translation studies are both an art and a science？It is mainly because of the following reasons：Firstly，like any other art and science，translatology requires a good grasp and a flexible use of the necessary specialized knowledge and skills.Secondly，like any other art and science，translatology calls for independent，honest，and creative effort.Thirdly，just like any other art and science，translatology demands that the translator be very careful about and highly responsible for his work.As we all know，sciences fall into three major categories：humanities，social sciences，and natural sciences.Linguistics，which is defined as the systematic or scientific study of language，belongs to humanities，and it is also regarded as a social science.Translatology，which involves at least two languages and two cultures and many other aspects of human knowledge，is，of course，considered to be both an art and a science.This definition of the nature of translation studies is discussed and confirmed as fully as possible by scholars both inside and outside China.Therefore，we need not argue for it any further here.
This chapter briefly discusses the origin and function，various definitions，and the nature of translation，focusing on its different definitions.They are essential aspects of translation and translatology.We had better study this chapter several times and have a good grasp of it so that we may not go astray whenever we do translation.
1.What do you know about the origin of translation？
2.What is the function of translation？
3.How do you define translation？
4.Learn by heart most of the definitions provided in this chapter and write them down in your exercise book from your memory.
5.What does the chief compiler of this textbook think about the nature of translatology？
（Written by Tan Weiguo and Zhang Yuhuan）