下载掌阅APP，畅读海量书库
立即打开
If Confucianism was the mainstream of Chinese thought for about 2,000 years, then the second deepest influence on Chinese thought was no doubt Taoism, which opposed but supplemented and enlivened Confucianism.
Lao Zi, the founder of Taoism, was born in the State of Chu (楚), in present-day Henan Province, a little earlier than Confucius. His family name was Li, his given name was Er and his nickname was Lao Dan (老聃). He lived during the Spring and Autumn Period. Due to his great learning, even Confucius was said to have traveled miles to consult him. According to Records of the Grand Historian ( 《史记》) by Sima Qian, Lao Zi was a librarian or archivist in the royal court, in charge of the archival records of Zhou Dynasty. Seeing the decline of the Zhou Dynasty, he quit his job to live in seclusion. On his way he reached a gate which he had to go through. Yin Xi (尹喜), the gate keeper, begged him to write a book. Lao Zi agreed and wrote about 5,000 words on Dao (道) and De (德), or the Way and its Virtue. The book is called Dao De Jing ( 《道德经》), or Classic of the Way and Its Virtue , but more commonly known as Lao Zi ( 《老子》). The philosophy interpreted in it is described as Taoism, for Tao , not Dao , which was how the Chinese word was represented in English in the past.
The book of Lao Zi consists of just about 5,000 Chinese characters, and contains 81 chapters which are divided into two parts, namely Dao and De. Short as it is, the book has played a significant role in the development of Chinese culture. It became the basis of Taoism, the school of philosophy parallel to Confucianism in ancient China. The thought of Lao Zi formed the foundation of the Taoist religion, the most influential indigenous school of religion in China. It has also had a direct impact on the characteristics, trends of thought and aesthetic sensibilities of the Chinese nation. The classic is written in verse, in very succinct language, with many lines capable of different interpretations. It has been translated into many foreign languages and modern Chinese. It was first introduced into Europe, possibly as early as the 15th century, and has been one of the most translated philosophical works of ancient China. Indeed, few books have attracted as much attention and aroused as much interest in China and abroad as the Dao De Jing (《道德经》), which has won Lao Zi the title of World Cultural Celebrity. Many of Lao Zi’s enlightening views are based on his philosophy of Dao , naturalness (自然), non-action (无为), and non-contention (不争).
The keynote of Lao Zi’s philosophical system is Dao , or the Way, which is the origin, the principle, the substance, and the standard of all things, to which all of them must conform. Dao gives birth to the universe and makes all things in the universe what they are. In other words, it is the law that governs the development and change of all things in the universe. It is invisible, intangible, and indescribable. It is even nameless, and Dao is just an inadequate name forced upon it.
Dao is one and simple, like the uncarved block. In its essence, it is eternal, absolute, and beyond space and time; in its operation, it is spontaneous, everywhere, constant and unceasing, always in transformation, going through cycles and finally returning to its root. It is modeled after Nature and is called the “self-so (自然).” It is good like water, always benefiting things without claiming credit. It takes no unnatural action, and yet all things flourish. Furthermore, it is nonbeing itself, not in the sense of nothingness but as not being any particular thing. When it is possessed by an individual thing, it becomes its Virtue (德), which is the principle underlying the individual thing. Dao creates all things under heaven while de (德) nurtures them. Lao Zi was progressive for his time in that he replaced a god, a Heaven, or a supreme authority that was believed to govern the universe with the Way, an absolute, overriding spirit that transcends time and space, but his theory represents the standpoint of objective idealism.
Lao Zi put forward a series of profound views on the laws governing the workings and changes of all things in the universe. According to Lao Zi, things and concepts are relative. In Chapter of the Dao De Jing (《道德经》), Lao Zi claimed, “When the world recognizes the beautiful as beautiful, there is the ugly; when the world recognizes the good as good, there is the bad (or the evil). Being and nonbeing produce each other; the difficult and the easy complement each other; the long and the short shape each other; the high and the low contain each other; the sound and the voice accord with each other; and what is before and what is after follow each other.” Generally speaking, of every pair of opposite concepts, one produces the other, or the existence of one depends on the existence of the other.
From the above mentioned relativity of things and concepts, Lao Zi continued to draw an important conclusion: “Reversion is the movement of Dao ,” or turning back is how the Way moves. This saying, which means that a state or quality has its process of development, and when it reaches the extreme, it will eventually turn back to its opposite state or quality, contains some naive ideas about dialectics. To him, anything that develops extreme qualities will invariably revert to the opposite qualities. Thus the named and nameless, being and nonbeing, strength and weakness, honor and shame, wisdom and stupidity, etc., are all interdependent and grow out of one another. He said, “It’s upon calamity that happiness leans; it is upon happiness that calamity rests.” Because of this truth, Lao Zi taught that, to weaken something, one should first strengthen it; to diminish something, one should first increase it. In this way, even the weakest in the world can overcome the strongest. That is to say, weakness is the function of Dao. Lao Zi unveiled the unity of opposites in the world and realized the contradictions in things and the transformation of the opposites. In his opinion, however, change did not develop in a forward fashion; instead, it went on in an endless cycle. In addition, the transformation of the opposites was absolute and unconditional.
“Naturalness”, as an important concept of Lao Zi’s philosophy, refers to a natural state of being, an attitude of following the way of nature. In Lao Zi’s eyes, Dao takes naturalness as its law. He emphasized that everything in the world has its own way of being and development: birds fly in the sky; fish swim in the water; flowers bloom and fall. All these phenomena occur independently and naturally without following any human will, and humans should not struggle to change anything natural. Lao Zi admonished people to give up any desire to control the world. Following the way of nature is the way to resolving conflicts between humans and the world. While in political philosophy, “naturalness” specifically denotes the natural state enjoyed by ordinary people free from the intervention of government supervision and moral edification. Taoism holds that in governance, a monarch should conform to the natural state of the people.
“Non-action”, as another vital concept of Lao Zi’s philosophy, is the guarantee of “naturalness”. Lao Zi said, “Dao acts through non-action and it always makes all things possible through non-interference with them,” by which he did not mean that one should do nothing and passively wait for something to be achieved. Neither did he deny human creativity. What he meant is that human enterprising actions must be built on the basis of naturalness, not on any attempt to interrupt the rhythm of nature. Human creativity should be in compliance with the ways of nature.
As far as government and social order, Lao Zi advocated rule through non-action. Here non-action does not mean doing nothing, but instead taking no action that is not natural, and that is against the original nature and wishes of people. It means letting people and the society take their own course without being taught and directed. In Lao Zi’s view, a state is badly governed when the ruler does too much. He said, “The more prohibitions there are in the world, the poorer the people will be; the more sharp weapons people have, the more turbulent the state will be; the more skills man possesses, the more strange things will appear; the more laws and orders are made, the more thieves and robbers there will be.” On the other hand, “If the ruler takes no action, the people will be transformed by themselves; if he loves tranquility, the people will become correct by themselves; if he engages in no activity, the people will become prosperous by themselves; if he has no desire, the people will become simple by themselves.” Many centuries later, there was in the West a similar political view: The best government is the one that governs least.
Taoist school of thought contrasts “action” to “non-action”. “Action” generally means that the rulers impose their will on others or the world without showing any respect for or following the intrinsic nature of things. “Non-action” is the opposite of “action”, and has three main points: through self-control containing the desire to interfere; following the nature of all things and the people; and bringing into play the initiative of all things and people. “Non-action” does not mean not doing anything, but is a wiser way of doing things. Non-action leads to the result of getting everything done.
On the basis of “naturalness” and “non-action”, Lao Zi proposed the view of “overcoming the strong by being weak”, which means what appears soft and weak can defeat or overcome what is hard and strong. A tree that is strong is fragile and can easily be broken in the wind; while a weak tree is supple, it bends with the wind but will not be broken.
The era in which Lao Zi lived was replete with endless wars. Therefore, war was a significant theme for philosophers, and anti-war thinking was the norm. According to Lao Zi, war springs from humans’ bloated desires. Conflicts arise out of people’s struggles to satisfy their desires, and conflict escalates into war. Therefore, Lao Zi put forward the philosophy of “non-contention”. To him, human competitive strife is the source of decline; desiring nothing is the natural way of life.
Lao Zi said, “The greatest virtue is just like water.” He compared his philosophy of “non-contention” to water, to distinguish it from the law of the jungle. He went on to say, “Water nurtures everything but contends for nothing.” To Lao Zi, humans tend to seek higher positions while water always flows to lower places. Driven by desire, humans like whatever they think is superior while depreciate whatever they think is inferior. As the source of life, water nourishes all living things on Earth and no life can exist without it. A virtuous ruler should govern with gentle and accommodating qualities as demonstrated by water. He should assist and provide for people just like what the water does, instead of competing with them for resources. People should nourish all things as water does and try their best to help others without seeking fame or profit.
As to the way to live, behave and handle things, Lao Zi advised people to be peaceful, quiet, submissive, tolerant, modest, contented and humble, to live a simple life and not to strive for wealth, fame or power, which will only give them worries and troubles. Even when one has won a great success, one had better withdraw from the scene without claiming credit for it. He said, “He does not show himself, and so is conspicuous; he does not consider himself right, and so is famous; he does not brag, and so is given credit; he is not conceited, and so can endure for long. It is just because he does not contend that no one in the world can contend with him.” He also said, “To yield is to be preserved; to bend is to become straight; to be low is to be full; to be worn out is to be renewed; to have little is to gain; to have plenty is to be perplexed. (曲则全，枉则直，清则盈，敝则新，少则多，多则惑。)”
Similarly, the ideal life of the individual is a life following the principles of Dao . In addition to simplicity, spontaneity and vacuity, a good life is one of tranquility, which characterizes the natural state; of weakness, which eventually overcomes strength; and above all, of non-action, that is, to lead a natural life. Lao Zi proposed “Three Treasures (三宝)” for life: kindness (慈), which enables one to be brave; frugality (俭), which makes one profuse; and humility, never being the first in the world or not venturing anything no others have done (不敢为天下先), which enables one to become chief of the state. However, Lao Zi exhorted people to banish wisdom and discard knowledge in order to reduce their desires. When people have few desires and are content with what they have, they will suffer no humiliation, and will be forever safe and sound.
By and large, Lao Zi was a venerable philosopher to Confucian scholars, a saint or a god to the people, and a fountainhead of Dao and one of the greatest divinities to the Taoists. His philosophy has influenced Chinese culture in many ways. His emphasis on harmony with all things in nature gave rise to subsequent schools of philosophy, poetry, painting and garden designing. Lao Zi’s theory, that the movement of Dao consists in reversion, helped cultivate the forbearance and resilience of people in adversity. Moreover, his theory, that Dao always makes all things possible through non-interference with them and yet nothing can be achieved without acting this way (道常无为而无不为), was taken as a guiding principle by the enlightened monarch.
1. 道法自然
Dao Operates Naturally.
◎人法地，地法天，天法道，道法自然。（《老子》）
Man patterns himself on the operation of the earth; the earth patterns itself on the operation of heaven; heaven patterns itself on the operation of Dao ; Dao patterns itself on what is natural. ( Lao Zi )
2. 反者道之动
The Only Motion of Dao Is Returning.
The motion of Dao is transforming into the opposite or returning to the original state; and Dao is soft and humble while it is functioning. ( Lao Zi )
3. 治大国若烹小鲜
Governing a Big Country Is Like Cooking Small Fish.
Governing a big country is like cooking small fish. When the country is ruled by Dao , demons can neither disrupt it nor harm the people. Even sages acting on Dao principles will not bring harm to people either. Free from harms by demons and sages, people stand to gain all the benefits. ( Lao Zi )
4. 不言之教
Influence Others without Preaching
Therefore, the sage deals with worldly affairs through non-action, and influences others without preaching. ( Lao Zi )
5. 福祸相倚
Fortune and Misfortune Are Intertwined.
Fortune lies beside misfortune; misfortune lurks within fortune. ( Lao Zi )
6. 光而不耀
Be Bright but Not Dazzling
The sage is ethical but not hurtful, incorruptible but not disdainful, candid but not offensive, bright but not dazzling. ( Lao Zi )
7. 见素抱朴
Maintain Originality and Embrace Simplicity
Cast aside all the wisdom, and the people will benefit greatly; cast aside the demands of righteousness and the people will revert to their natural dutiful feelings; cast aside deceit and gain and thieves will disappear. Teachings, righteousness and deceit are all the embellishments of man and are inadequate. People must maintain and depend on their natural condition, and desire less. ( Lao Zi )
8. 玄德
Inconspicuous Virtue
Dao is the origin of all things; virtue nurtures all things, which thus assume their different forms, and grow in different environments. That is why all things and beings revere Dao and cherish virtue. This reverence and cherishing arise because there are no demands imposed on the natural state of things and beings. Instead this state is respected. Thus Dao creates all things, virtue nurtures them, and the environment makes them grow and mature. Create without possessing, influence without showing off one’s ability, and cultivate without controlling. Such is the quality of inconspicuous virtue. ( Lao Zi )
9. 兵强则灭
Relying on Force and Flaunting One’s Superiority Lead to Destruction.
When a man is alive, his body is soft and weak. Upon his death, it becomes hard and stiff. When grass and trees live, they are soft and fragile. Upon their death, they turn withered and dry. Therefore, the hard and stiff are followers of death; the soft and weak are followers of life. That is why when an army flaunts its strength, it will soon perish, while when a tree becomes strong it snaps. ( Lao Zi )
10. 知常达变
Master both Permanence and Change
Returning to the basics leads to tranquility. Tranquility leads to the return of life. The return of life means permanence, and understanding permanence is to be enlightened. ( Lao Zi )
11. 上善若水
Great Virtue Is like Water.
Great virtue is like water. Water nourishes all things gently and does not compete with anything, content to be in a low place not sought by people. Water is therefore closest to Dao . ( Lao Zi )
1. The book of Lao Zi consists of just about Chinese characters, and contains 81 chapters which are divided into two parts, namely Dao and De.
2. The keynote of Lao Zi’s philosophical system is Dao , or the Way, which is the , the principle, the substance, and the standard of all things, to which all of them must conform.
3. Lao Zi unveiled the unity of opposites in the world and realized the in things and the transformation of the opposites.
4. In Lao Zi’s eyes, Dao takes as its law.
5. As far as government and social order, Lao Zi advocated rule through .
1. 道法自然
2. 不言之教
3. 福祸相依
4. 见素抱朴
5. 上善若水
《老子》又称《道德经》，是春秋时期的老聃所作，主要研究政治哲学和人生哲学。受其思想影响，中国古代产生了道教，这是华夏民族本土产生的最具影响力的宗教。《老子》的思想直接影响了中国人的民族特性、思想倾向和审美趣味。直到今天，《老子》仍是我们民族思想的一部分。此外，《老子》也是译本最多的中国古代哲学著作之一。
1. What are the main characteristics of Taoism?
2. What is your attitude towards Taoism?