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Buddhism, a philosophy as well as religion, was founded by an Indian prince, Siddhartha Gautama, also known as Sakyamuni (the sage of Sakyas), the son of the ruler of a small state in what is now Nepal. He is said to have lived during the years of 565—485 B.C.E. Tradition has it that at the age of 29, he left the luxurious life of the palace to become a wandering mendicant, determined to seek a solution to the problem of suffering and understand the true meaning of life. At the age of 35, through mediation, he found the solution, became enlightened, and henceforth became known as the Buddha (佛), or the enlightened one.
After this momentous event, the Buddha spent his remaining years wandering up and down the Ganges Valley (恒河谷), preaching his message to ascetic and lay persons alike. More and more people accepted the truth he had found and became his disciples and followers. The general tenets of Buddha may be summarized as following.
From traditional Hindu thought, Buddhism accepts the theory of reincarnation (轮回), according to which a living being will be reborn endlessly in the ceaseless cycle of existence in accordance with his karma (业或因果, fruits of actions). Karma results from acts or deeds as well as the intentions behind those deeds, and represents the “fruits” arising from those thoughts and actions. Every deed or thought produces karma which may be good or evil. According to the karma of the past, a living being will undergo repeated rebirths and assume a different form in each rebirth. These rebirths take place on several different levels: that of beings in the various hells, of animals, of human beings, of divine beings in the various heavens and so on. In their totality, they constitute the wheel of life and death.
In connection with human life, Sakyamuni preached the Four Noble Truths (四圣谛):
The noble truth of suffering (苦谛). Life is suffering. Birth, decay, sickness, and death are all sufferings. To meet a person whom one hates, to be separated from a person whom one loves, to seek something that cannot be obtained, and physical and mental pains are all sufferings.
The noble truth of the origination of suffering (集谛). The cause of suffering is desire, or thirst, or greed. It is the craving thirst that causes rebirth, accompanied by sensual delights; this thirst seeks satisfaction as a craving for lust, for existence, or for nonexistence.
The noble truth of the cessation of suffering (灭谛). If desire can be removed, all human suffering will come to an end. The ideal state where there is no desire, no passion and no suffering is called nirvana (涅槃), which means freedom from the endless cycle of personal reincarnation. Suffering ceases with the complete cessation of that craving—the giving up, the getting rid of, the release from, and the detachment from this craving thirst.
The noble truth of the right path to the cessation of suffering (道谛). To attain nirvana, one has to follow the right path or the right way that leads to the cessation of suffering—the Noble Eight-Fold Path (八正道).
According to the Buddha, everything in the universe is transient and in a state of constant flux. This means that phenomenal “existence”, as commonly perceived by the senses, is illusory; it is not real inasmuch as, though it exists, its existence is not permanent or absolute. Nothing belonging to it has an enduring entity or “nature” of its own; everything is dependent upon a combination of fluctuating conditions and factors for its seeming “existence” at any given moment. This is the Buddhist theory of the Twelve Nidanas (十二因缘) or dependent origination, expressed in the following formula: (1) the original condition of ignorance leads to (2) will-to-action, which in turn leads to (3) consciousness, which leads to (4) psycho-physical existence, which leads to (5) the six organs of sense (eye, ear, nose, tongue, body or sense of touch and mind), which leads to (6) contact, which leads to (7) sensation or feeling, which leads to (8) craving, which leads to (9) attachment or grasping which leads to (10) becoming or worldly existence, which leads to (11) birth, which leads to (12) decay, death, grief, lamentation, physical suffering, dejection and despair.
Given the awareness of the law of dependent origination, the question arises as to how one may escape the continually renewed cycle. It is not enough to know that misery pervades all existence and the way in which life evolves; there must also be a purification that leads to the overcoming of this process. This can be achieved through the avoiding of extremes, and following a middle path. This, the Noble Eight-Fold Path, consists of eight steps: right view (正见), right thought (正思), right speech (正语), right conduct (正业), right livelihood (正命), right effort (正进), right mindfulness (正念) and right concentration (正定).
The ultimate goal to be achieved through following the Noble Eight-Fold Path is nirvana, but the Buddha does not explain what it is or what it is not because it cannot be expressed in general terms and escapes all definitions. Nirvana is a condition that is realized when karma and the consequential succession of lives and births have been definitely overcome. The resulting state is of oneness with reality and the Buddhas are those beings who belong to this state.
The above tenets underlie Buddhism, in the elaboration of which, however, infinite variations exist within the individual schools. Among the schools, the two main groups are those of the Hinayana or the Small Vehicle (小乘), and the Mahayana or the Great Vehicle (大乘). Hinayana Buddhism, which is closer to the tenets of original Buddhism, has to this day remained dominant in the Buddhist countries of Southeast Asia. Mahayana Buddhism, which is an enormously elaborated and sophisticated development of primitive Buddhism, received its chief growth in the countries north and northeast of India: Central Asia, China and Japan, especially China.
Among the many differences between the two groups, we need to cite three: The difference in theory centered on the ontological problem. To the Hinayana schools, our karma-producing actions are caused by the delusion that we are real selves, that the ego is a permanent identity, and therefore this self or ego is dominated by egoistical desires or attachments which shackle us to the ever-revolving wheel of birth-life-death-rebirth. Therefore, the key to release from this wheel is the understanding that there is no self or ego and consequently that desires and the satisfaction of desires are the illusory products of ignorance. Though the Hinayana schools deny the existence of the self, they accept the existence (at least the temporary existence) of a number of elements and aggregates. The elements, called dharmas (法), include such things as sensation, form, memory, space, and energy. The aggregates, called skandhas (蕴), include material form and the spiritual items of sensation, ideas, concepts, and understanding. To the Mahayana schools, neither does self or ego exist, nor do the hypothesized dharmas and skandhas exist. There is literally nothing that has true existence, and nothing that can be called a thing-in-itself.
In Hinayana Buddhism, salvation is a personal matter; the individual concerned must work out his own salvation and can do little to help others to achieve theirs. In Mahayana Buddhism, on the contrary, the concept of the Bodhisattva (菩萨) is prominent. It is the being who seeks Buddhahood but seeks it altruistically; he wants enlightenment, but wants it to enlighten others; he willingly sacrifices himself for others, and therefore, even after enlightenment, voluntarily remains within the wheel of life and death.
In Hinayana Buddhism, the Buddha is only an enlightened human being, whereas in Mahayana Buddhism the Buddha is the Godhead, the savior who possesses limitless power. Apart from the Buddha, there are various Bodhisattvas such as Avalokitesvara (观音), Amitabha (阿弥陀佛) and Maitreya (弥勒佛), who represent personifications for the popular mind of various aspects of reality.
It is generally recognized that Buddhism was brought to China by missionaries at the very beginning of the Christian Era. Tradition has it that Buddhism was introduced after Emperor Ming (汉明帝) of the Han Dynasty had a dream of a flying golden deity, which was interpreted as a vision of the Buddha. Accordingly, the Emperor dispatched emissaries to India who subsequently returned to China with The Sutra in Forty-two Sections (《四十二章经》), which was deposited in a temple known as the White Horse Temple outside the capital of Luoyang. Today there is still a White Horse Temple on that site.
The Buddhism that first became popular in China during the Han Dynasty was deeply colored with magical practices. In the succeeding centuries, Chinese pilgrims constantly went to India to study the religion at first hand and to bring back the sacred texts, and Indian and Central Asiatic monks came to China to assist in the translation of the texts into Chinese. The work of translation contributed greatly to the rapid growth of Buddhism from magical practices into both a religion and a philosophy.
When Buddhists came into contact with the Chinese literati, especially the Neo-Taoists, in the Wei-Jin Period, they matched Buddhist concepts with those of Taoism, identifying Tathagata (如来佛) with the Taoist “original nonbeing”, for example. Under Neo-Taoist influence, early Buddhist schools in China all engaged in discussions about being and nonbeing. There are seven , among which the most famous are the School of Original Nonbeing (本无宗) represented by Dao An (道安), the school of Matter as Such (即色宗) by Zhi Daolin (支道林) and the School of Nonbeing of Mind (心无宗) by Zhi Mindu (支愍度).
Buddhism had marked progression during the Northern and Southern Dynasties. From the time of Emperor Wen of Song (宋文帝), many venerable Buddhist monks came to China from the West, and Buddhism of various sects flourished. Large numbers of Sanskrit Buddhist scriptures were translated into Chinese. Among the emperors and princes, the most devout Buddhists were Xiao Ziliang, Prince of Jinling of Qi, and Emperor Wu of Liang. Emperor Wu of Liang many times retired to a Buddhist temple to become a novice and each time had to be brought out of the temple by his ministers. At one time, Jiankang (modern Nanjing) alone boasted more than 500 Buddhist monasteries housing upwards of 100,000 monks and nuns. Famous Buddhist monks were held in awe by people of rank and title.
The Northern and Southern Dynasties also witnessed bitter controversies over Buddhist issues. Many Buddhist thinkers sought to combine Buddhism with Confucianism and Taoism, and there were also some orthodox Chinese scholars, usually Confucianists and Taoists, who attacked Buddhism as the religion of the barbarians and accused the Buddhists of neglecting social and personal responsibilities by abandoning family life. The most spectacular controversy centered around the destructibility or the indestructibility of the soul. The Buddhist adherents maintained that the soul would not perish after the decay of the body, and would undergo successive transmigration with the load of karma, whereas their opponents, such as Fan Zhen (范缜), contended that the body and the soul cannot be separated, and that the soul exists when the body exists and the soul will perish as the body decays. A number of the resulting polemics have been preserved in two compilations: Collected Essays on Buddhism (《弘明集》) and Further Collection of Essays on Buddhism (《广弘明集》).
By the seventh century, Buddhism reached its apogee, claiming as converts all elements of Chinese society—the imperial household, the nobility, the great and wealthy families, and the common people. Scattered all over China were monasteries large and small, and associated with the monasteries were vigorous and influential schools of Buddhism founded by creative Chinese monks. Eminent Buddhist schools founded during the Sui and Tang Dynasties include the Three-Treatise School (三论宗), the Consciousness Only School (唯识宗), the Tiantai (Flower Splendor) School (天台宗), the Hua Yan School, the Pure Land School (净土宗), and the Chan or the Meditation School (禅宗).
The Song Dynasty was the age of the Neo-Confucianists, most of whom, though incorporating into their systems Buddhist theories, fought it strenuously and continuously. Consequently, Buddhism embarked on the way of decline. However, Buddhism was still a major force at that time, and it was recorded that there were 40,000 monasteries housing more than 450,000 monks and nuns. Several versions of Buddhist canons were published. In the Yuan, Ming and Qing Dynasties, Buddhism, in the main, continued to decline. Though there were short-time revivals for some of the Buddhist schools, they never regained the popularity they enjoyed before. In modern China, Buddhism suffered greater eclipse, but its influence still cannot be too lowly estimated.
The following is a brief introduction to the major Chinese Buddhist schools.
This school was based on three Indian scriptures— The Treatise on the Middle Doctrine (《中论》) by Nagarjuna (龙树), The Twelve Gates Treatise (《十二门论》), also by Nagarjuna, and The One Hundred Verses Treatise (《百论》) by Aryadeva (提婆), a pupil of Nagarjuna. Founded by Ji Zang (吉藏), the school holds that all things come into being through dependent origination, and they themselves have nothing of their own. That is, they do not have their own true natures. According to the famous doctrine of this school—the Eight-No-Middle Way (八不中道)—there is no production and no extinction; no enduring and no cutting off; no unity and no diversity; no arriving and no departing. Both being and nonbeing are viewed as extremes whose opposition must be resolved in a synthesis. The synthesis, itself a new extreme with its own antithesis, also needs to be synthesized. In the end, all oppositions are dissolved in the True Middle or emptiness. This school was especially nihilistic and is often called the School of Nonbeing (空宗).
This school was founded by Xuan Zang (玄奘), one of the greatest figures in the history of Chinese Buddhism. Entering the monastery at 13, Xuan Zang traveled from monastery to monastery for more than ten years and came across many conflicting doctrines. Impelled by a burning desire to seek the true doctrines and visit the sacred places of Buddhism in India, he started alone in 629 on the pilgrimage and arrived in India in 633. There he spent the next ten years traveling and studying before starting his journey home, this time carrying with him 657 Buddhist texts. Under imperial patronage, he set up a school of translation and devoted the next 20 years to the translation of 75 of these works, most of these being Yogachara (瑜伽行唯识宗) works. He left a famous work, Treatise on the Establishment of the Doctrine of Consciousness-Only (《成唯识论》).
The Consciousness Only School maintains that what people call the “ego” and “dharmas”, or things, have only a false basis and lack any real nature of their own; their manifestations are all mental representations dependent upon the evolution of consciousness. That is, they are products of consciousness, which acts as their evolving agent. This school divides consciousness into eight kinds: those of the five senses (sight, hearing, smell, taste and touch), plus a sixth consciousness which coordinates these senses, that of intellection, or the manas consciousness (末那识), and the maturing consciousness, variously called the alaya consciousness (阿赖耶识), the seed consciousness or storehouse consciousness. Whereas the ego and things, considered as external to the mind, are not in their essential nature existent, the consciousness upon which this ego and these things depend is itself real. Therefore the ego and things cannot be said to be absolutely empty or unreal. Accordingly, the Consciousness Only School follows a middle way, denying the existence of external things as such, but affirming that of consciousness.
The Consciousness Only School, like the Three-Treatise School, was essentially no more than an Indian school transplanted to Chinese soil. It lacked the spirit of synthesis and was too extreme for the Chinese. Consequently, it declined after a few centuries, a relatively short time compare to other schools.
This school was founded by Zhi Kai (智凯), and named after the Tiantai Mountain in Zhejiang where Zhi Kai lived and taught. This school took The Lotus Sutra (《法华经》) as its basic text, and it is sometimes referred to as the Lotus School (法华宗). As in all schools of Buddhism, the Tiantai School teaches a middle way, but it achieves a typically Chinese synthesis. According to this school, all dharmas (elements of existence) are empty because they have no self-nature and depend on causes for production. This is the Truth of Emptiness. But since they are produced, they do possess a temporary and dependent existence. This is the Truth of Temporary Truth. Thus dharmas are both empty and temporary. This is the Truth of the Mean. Each truth involves the other two, so that three are one and one is three. This mutual identification is the true state of all dharmas. In the realm of temporary truth—that is the phenomenal world—all realms of existence, whether of Buddhas, men, or beasts, and all characters of being, such as cause, effect, and substance, involve one another, so that each element, even an instant of thought, involves the entire universe. As put by the Buddhists, “The Three Thousand Worlds are immanent in an instant of thought (一念三千).” Accordingly, all beings are of the same Buddha-nature, and hence all are to attain Buddhahood eventually. The methods of attaining Buddhahood include both the method of concentration and that of insight.
One of the most famous early Chinese Buddhist Schools, the Tiantai School, lasted for several centuries. In the early ninth century, it spread to Japan and, in the late 11th century, to Korea.
The Hua Yan School was established by Fa Zang (法藏) and based on The Avatamsaka Sutra , or The Flowery Splendor Sutra (《华严经》). This school propagates the doctrine of the universal causation of the realm of dharmas. This realm is fourfold. It contains the realm of facts, the realm of principle, the realm of principle and facts harmonized, and the realm of all facts interwoven and mutually identified. Principle is emptiness, satic, the noumenon, whereas facts are specific characters, dynamic, constituting the phenomenal world. They interact and interpenetrate and in this way form a perfect harmony. This doctrine rests on the theory of the six characteristics of universality, speciality, similarity, difference, integration and disintegration. Thus, each dharma is both one and all. The world is, in reality, a perfect harmony in all its flowery splendor.
The Pure Land School was founded by a Tang Buddhist Shan Dao (善导). The basic doctrines of this school differ widely from the doctrines of the early Buddhists. The Pure Land School’s Buddhists have generally taught that a man reaches salvation from this earth not by individual effort or the accumulation of merits but through faith in the grace of the Buddha Amitabha (阿弥陀佛). The main practice of those who follow the Pure Land teachings is not the learning of the texts, nor meditation on the Buddha, but rather the constant invocation of the name Amitabha. Furthermore, in Pure Land Buddhism, the attainment of nirvana is not the goal; it is rather to become reborn in the Pure Land of Amitabha.
These doctrines and practice of invoking the name Amitabha later gained great popularity in China, where it was believed that the world had reached a degenerate period, in which the Buddhist doctrines were no longer clear and men no longer possessed the purity of heart or determination to attain salvation by self-endeavor. Therefore, all men of every section of society could only hope to be saved by the grace of Amitabha.
Of all the schools of Chinese Buddhism, the most uniquely Chinese and the best known is that of Chan. This name is an abbreviation of Channa (禅那), which is the Chinese phonetic rendering of the Sanskrit dhyana, meaning meditation. The Japanese term for Chan Buddhism is called Zen Buddhism, which has been more commonly used abroad.
According to Chan tradition, the school originated with certain esoteric teachings allegedly expounded by the historical Buddha to a disciple, and thereafter transmitted through a series of Indian patriarchs of the school. There was a transmission from mind to mind without the use of written texts. Finally the twenty-eighth of these patriarchs, the famous Bodhidharma (菩提达摩), came to China during the reign of Emperor Wu of the Liang Dynasty, thus becoming the first Chan patriarch in China. After his death, the school was successively headed by his disciple Hui Ke (慧可) as the second Chinese patriarch, by Seng Can (僧璨) as the third, by Dao Xin (道信) as the fourth, and by Hong Ren (弘忍) as the fifth.
Following Hong Ren, Chan Buddhism was divided into two schools: a northern school led by Shen Xiu (神秀), stressing “gradual enlightenment (渐悟)”; and a southern school led by Hui Neng (慧能), stressing “sudden enlightenment (顿悟)”. The southern school gradually overcame the powerful northern school, and the doctrines now associated with Chan are those of the southern school. The position may be suggested by the story of Hui Neng’s accession to power. An itinerant seller of firewood, Hui Neng, was attracted to the monastery where the fifth patriarch was instructing his disciples. For eight months, he worked in the stables. When the reigning patriarch, near death, decided to pick as his successor the one who wrote the best gatha (偈, short poem, Buddhist hymn) summarizing the teaching of Chan, the favorite candidate, Shen Xiu, inscribed his poem on the wall outside the master’s hall:
When the master saw the poem, he commented, “Shen Xiu has not seen the truth yet. More meditation is necessary.”
Hui Neng, who was illiterate, heard his fellow monks talking about Shen Xiu’s poem, and composed another one to comment on it. He asked someone to write his verse on the wall:
When the master saw Hui Neng’s poem, he sensed that Hui Neng had a deeper comprehension of the truth of Chan Buddhism and appointed him the sixth patriarch. As there were so many jealous monks in the temple, the master told Hui Neng to go back to Guangdong and live in hiding, to wait for a proper opportunity to reveal his status and perform his duties.
Back in Guangdong, Hui Neng lived a secluded life in the mountains for many years. Then one day, when he was 39 years old, he went to a temple to listen to the learned abbot’s interpretation of Buddhism. Two monks were arguing the fluttering of a pennant. One said, “The pennant is fluttering (时有幡动),” and the other said, “The wind is fluttering the pennant (时有风吹幡动).” Hui Neng interpreted them by saying, “Neither the pennant not the wing is moving (不是风动，不是幡动). It is your own mind that is moving (仁者心动).” The abbot was surprised by what Hui Neng said, so he invited the stranger in and began to talk with him.
In this way, Hui Neng’s status as the sixth patriarch of the Chan sect became known. Shortly afterwards, he started preaching in a temple in Shaoguan in northern Guangdong. His talks on Buddhism were recorded by some of his disciples, which made up a book entitled Scripture from the Platform (《坛经》) containing the basic theories of the Chan sect.
Principles of Chan Buddhism were summarized in these four lines: “The belief is passed on outside the religion (教外别传). There is no reliance on written scripts (不立文字). It goes straight into the human heart-mind (直指人心). One becomes a Buddha the moment he sees his own Buddha nature (见性成佛).
Energizing powerfully in China until the 13th century, Chan Buddhism found a home in Japan in 1191, where it was known under the Japanese name Zen Buddhism. It is today an important factor in Japanese life.
Hui Neng, the sixth Patriarch of Chan Buddhism, should not be ignored. The principles of Chan Buddhism are summarized in these four lines: “The belief is passed on outside the religion(教外别传). There is no reliance on written scripts(不立文字). It goes straight into the human heart-mind(直指人心). One becomes a Buddha the moment he sees his own Buddha nature(见性成佛).” These lines have become the first thing to pop into the mind when people think of Chan Buddhism. In 730, Hui Neng’s disciples won debates with other sects and Chan Buddhism was strengthened in China. Chan Buddhism was introduced to Korea in the 8th Century and to Japan at the end of the 12th Century.
The Buddhist community is composed of monks and nuns, male and female novices, who usually live in Buddhist monasteries, and laymen and laywomen, who observe the precepts though living in their own home. Government of the monastery was in the hands of the abbot, who was elected by the monks. The power of the abbot within the monastery was, like that of the senior person in any Chinese institution, paternalistic, and it extended to the expulsion of any monk who committed a grave sin or who was incorrigibly nonconformist.
The life of the monks and s in the monastery was strictly regulated by the Vinaya. There were 250 precepts for the monk and 348 for the nun. The five precepts for the layman prohibit killing, stealing, engaging in sexual misconduct, lying, and drinking intoxicating liquor. There were five additional precepts for monastic novices and laity committed to this stricter regime: not to eat during prohibited hours; not to take part in festivals and amusements; not to use garlands, perfumes, or ointments; not to use a bed or a chair that is too large or luxurious; not to accept money for one self. Taken together, these comprise the ten precepts (十戒). The monks and nuns were also required to practice the Six Acts (六度), which include charity or giving, keeping the commandments, patience under insult, zeal and progress, meditation and wisdom.
A person often joins the Sangha (僧伽) by applying, or being given as a child, to the master of some small temple. Here he would receive training as a novice. A peculiarly Chinese aspect of this practice is that the relationship of the master and the novice was often considered the equivalent of the natural father-son relationship. After preliminary studies, the novice would travel to some monastery noted for its great tradition of famous masters, and there he would apply for ordination (传戒). Ordination involved a longer or shorter period of study and training and was conferred in three stages. In later times, these three stages, each originally requiring extensive preparation, were for practical reasons combined into a three-part ceremony that concluded within a period of a few weeks or days. The Bodhisattva vows were the important ones. There were (1) to lead all beings to salvation, (2) to seek to put an end to all pains and sufferings, (3) to study all teachings of the Buddha, (4) to seek to perfect oneself. After pronouncing these vows in impressive rituals supervised by duly authorized senior monks, the candidates were branded by burning incense on their shaven pates and became full-fledged monks.
There are various Buddhist holidays. The three major events of the Buddha’s life—his birth (佛诞), enlightenment (成道), and entrance into final nirvana (涅槃) are commemorated in all Buddhist countries but not everywhere on the same day. In Southeast Asia, the three events are celebrated together on the full moon day in May of the Gregorian calendar. In China, the three anniversaries are observed on separate lunar calendar days (the birth April 8, the enlightenment December 8, and the nirvana February 15).
For the Buddhists in China, the Republic of Korea, and Japan, there is the Ullambana (盂兰盆会) or All-Souls’ Feast, celebrated on the fifteenth day of the seventh lunar month. This festival is based on the legend concerning one of the chief disciples of the Buddha, Moggallana (目犍连), who descended to the deepest of Buddhist hell to search for his mother, reborn there because of her greed and deceit. To rescue her from her sufferings, the Buddha suggested that Moggallana and the community of monks make a united donation of food, clothing, and wealth, not only on behalf of Moggallana’s mother, but also for the sake of all departed ancestors. This was accordingly done and the mother was rescued. Because of its identification with the Chinese virtue of filial piety, the All-Soul’s Feast became the most popular annual Buddhist festival in China.
Buddhist influence on Chinese culture is far and wide. In actuality, Buddhism has become one of the important components of Chinese culture. It affected almost all aspects of Chinese life, be it philosophy, religion, arts, literature or science.
As has been stated before, it was under Buddhist pressure and influence that the Tang and Song Neo-Confucianists established Neo-Confucianism in which both Buddhist theories and terms were incorporated. The classification of principles and things made by the Hua Yan School was taken into the Cheng-Zhu School as the distinction between principle and material force. The Chan method of meditation became a chief means of spiritual cultivation in the Lu-Wang School. It was after taking in Buddhist theories and practices that Religious Taoism grew, from magical practices into a real religion. The Taoist five precepts and eight precepts are totally those of the Buddhists.
With the introduction of Buddhism into China, there appeared a new art of architecture—the art of building Buddha’s temples and pagodas. These temples and pagodas, unique in building, magnificent in form and ancient in time, now serve as main scenic spots and historical sites. For example, the oldest extant wooden structure in China is the main hall of the Buddha’s Halo Monastery (佛光寺) of Wutai in Shanxi. The main hall of the Hua Yan Temple (华严寺) in Datong, is a huge single-storey structure with single-decked eaves. Built in about 1038, it is one of the largest Buddhist structures in China. There are various types of masonry pagodas: one-storey pagodas, multistory pagodas, multi-eave pagodas, stupas and diamond-based pagodas, all of which are monuments marking the sites where Buddhist relics are buried. The wooden pagoda of Yingxian County, Shan’xi Province, for instance, is the finest example of multistory timber construction in China. Erected in 1056, it is a five-storey structure with four additional mezzanine storeys, built on an octagonal plan.
Associated with these temples and pagodas are paintings and sculptures of Buddhist scenes of paradise and hell, of images of the Buddha, Bodhisattva, demons and other legendary beings. The most eminent paintings and sculptures of this kind are found in the three great grottoes: the Yun-gang Grotto (云冈石窟), Longmen Grotto (龙门石窟) and Mogao Grotto (莫高石窟). All these grottoes were designed and made to invoke the Buddha’s blessing, and now they are world-famous art treasures.
Buddhism also contributed a great deal to Chinese literature. Genuine Chinese fiction was developed in the Tang Dynasty, during which Buddhism flourished. Earlier works had been mere fables and naive tales. The Tang Tales of Marvels (《唐传奇》) derived from Buddhist visions, however, developed intriguing plots and vivid characterizations. The great masterpiece Journey to the West (《西游记》) by Wu Cheng’en (吴承恩) is a fictionalized account of the pilgrimage of the Chinese monk Xuan Zang to India in the 7th century. In addition, the Buddhist idea of karma and retribution becomes the never-tired-of theme of Chinese authors. It is no exaggeration to say that without knowledge of Buddhism, it is difficult to read Chinese literary works.
1. At the age of 35, through mediation, he found the solution, became enlightened, and henceforth became known as the Buddha, or the one.
2. The ideal state where there is no desire, no passion and no suffering is called nirvana, which means freedom from the endless cycle of personal .
3. The Buddhism that first became popular in China during the Dynasty was deeply colored with magical practices.
4. Of all the schools of Chinese Buddhism, the most uniquely Chinese and the best known is that of .
5. With the introduction of Buddhism into China, there appeared a new art of architecture—the art of building Buddha’s temples and .
公元一世纪左右，佛教通过丝绸之路从古印度传到中国中部。此后，众多佛经（sutras）传入中国，印度高僧（dignitaries）也被邀请来宣讲佛法。在同一世纪，中国的第一个佛教圣地——白马寺——在河南洛阳建成。
佛教在发展初期受到贵族的肯定和接纳，但也遭到百姓的反对和抗拒。他们更喜欢儒家和道教。
禅宗六世祖师慧能（638～713）将儒家思想引入佛教，推动了中国佛教的发展。慧能认为每个人都有佛性，都可以成佛。他坚信，佛教信徒只要心中有佛，就可以不诵佛经、不遵从其他仪规而成佛。他的主张受到了学者、官员和普通百姓的欢迎。在他的努力下，佛教终于在中国流行，并迅速传播开来。
1. What are the main teachings of Buddhism?
2. What are the important differences between Hinayana Buddhism and the Mahayana Buddhism?
3. What are the characteristics of the Chan School?