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1947年印度独立前后,印度这个词带给人们的更多是一种地理概念和文化想象,对于生活在那里的人们而言,附着于其上的国家认同仍是十分新鲜的事物。独立之初印度的政治发展,强调的主题词是政治融合(Political Integration),有效的国家治理必须与激烈变革可能导致的分裂保持微妙的平衡,以契合当时印度所面临的各种紧迫问题。对于制宪者来说,民众已经适应了殖民者带来的民主制度,独立后的印度保留了文化上的这种惯性,他们要做的是在这个制度基础上融入其对于社会秩序和未来国家的想象,去进一步改良英式民主制度。当时以尼赫鲁为首的印度领导层认为社会和经济现代化离不开国家统一和法律一致性,即新生共和国的现代化、工业化和社会重构离不开一个强大的中央政府,从而推动必要的国家改革。尼赫鲁认为,“只有通过国家计划体系,才能免受既有利益集团干扰”,推动解决印度封建土地体系、社会治理和教育等方面面临的问题。 [95] 不过这并不意味着牺牲民主精神,尼赫鲁领导的国大党政府始终认为基于西方民族国家模式和普选制的民主制度,才是印度宪法的模板。

奥斯汀(Granville Austin)研读了制宪大会的会议记录和各位代表的辩论发言后提出,印度宪法是共识决策和相互妥协的范例。 [96] 但是他也注意到其他学者的不同意见,例如一些学者认为由于国大党在制宪大会的主导地位,非国大党代表几乎是被恐吓着投下赞成票的。乔布(S.K.Chaube)认为至少在少数族群和语言政治两个问题上,共识决策和相互妥协的原则就没有得到贯彻执行,少数族群问题上没有妥协,语言政治上的妥协并不真诚。 [97] 安贝德卡尔也认为制宪大会的重要性被人们高估了,对于很多问题,“他们不得不去另外一个地方请示意见,然后再回到会场”;很明显“国大党政府事业部的工作人员代表国大党”做了大量辛勤工作,他们辛苦往来于国大党党部和制宪大会会场。 [98] 安贝德卡尔承认国大党的主导地位为制宪大会的顺利工作带来了保证,“混乱的可能性被降到最低,国大党在制宪大会的存在确保了秩序和纪律……宪法草案能顺利出炉,国大党是功不可没的”。 [99] 对于很多争议性问题,制宪大会上的国大党成员通过小规模的非正式内部会议,起到了消除或将分歧降到最低的作用。 [100] 事实也的确如此,在有分歧的方式或者争论不决的时候,不强行推动表决,而是休会让大家有时间寻找共识。 [101] 对于那些争论不决的问题,制宪大会并没有试着强行表决,因为人们明白多数原则并不会总是适用于所有问题,为着印度未来的发展,努力弥合分歧是大家的共识。

印度通过宪法把这个世界上人口第二大国同时可能是内部分歧最多的国家聚拢在一起,宪法也为印度政府管理国内复杂的族群、宗教和语言群体提供了基本制度框架。在讨论和评价印度宪法及其确立的制度时,人们需要平衡宪法的传统意识和前瞻意识。传统意识指的是宪法文本、制宪者思想和宪法目标;前瞻性指的是关于社会契约和社会公平的讨论,宪法总归是要应对变化的环境和社会价值观所带来的挑战的。 [102] 任何宪法传统都需要平衡历史权威和未来效用,印度宪法也不例外,传统意识意味着在相关讨论中要忠于宪法文本,引用判例或是援引制宪者思想,对传统意识的创新解释有助于应对新的挑战,在这个过程中,历史的权威和未来的挑战相互碰撞,构成一场关于民主的持续对话。从这个意义来讲,印度宪法体系不仅是一套原则,也是不同思想和价值观辩论的平台。

印度宪法生效的时候,人们指责它距印度社会现实太远。还有人指责它是非印度的(un-Indian),在制宪大会的结束陈词部分,很多批评意见指出这部宪法违背了当时印度盛行的法律,与印度独立民族主义运动权威的来源之一甘地的政治理论有着明显区别。这些批评声的来源不同,反映的是不同习惯和传统。印度宪法借鉴了在本土制度化很长时间的英国普通法思想,有着《印度政府法案(1935)》的深刻印记,印度宪法还借鉴了爱尔兰宪法在自己的宪法中设立了《国家政策指导原则》,同时深受美国关于程序争议辩论的影响。这些都成为制宪大会借鉴外来经验处理印度面临独特挑战的案例。在宪法草案通过的当天,普拉萨德(Rajendra Prasad)作为制宪大会主席,在总结陈词中表示,“今天的印度需要的是为了国家利益的需要诚实工作的人……我们面临巨大挑战,族群差异、种姓差异、语言差异、邦际差异……这些都要求我们拥有长远的眼光,不惧为着国家整体的利益而牺牲狭隘的小团体利益,要求我们超越偏见”。 [103]

时至今日,政治学家们还在争论印度宪法是否应该作为印度政治文化讨论的参照点。 [104] 托克维尔在《论美国的民主》中反复提及在美国,政治问题总是能成为司法问题。在印度,人们把可以纳入司法的问题领域大大拓宽,包括政治、行政和司法领域的大量争论,最终都成为法院和法官们需要辩论和处理的问题。在主张权利、争论管辖权或限制政府权力时,民众和法官都引用宪法价值观和原则。引用宪法价值观和原则可以主张很多权力,从保护人文地理环境到分配自然资源,从响应民众疾苦到普通的侵权索赔,等等。印度宪法体系的有趣之处也在于此,它已经将印度民众生活的方方面面都宪法化了。印度宪法管辖的广度和深度是十分少见的,最高法院主要处理联邦性的事务,但是通过建立高院体系,司法系统的管辖权得以拓宽。这使得在印度,民众对抗国家权力的法律诉讼已经体现了相当程度的制度化。 [105] 印度政治制度的演变历史表明印度宪法体系并不是关于狭隘思想的集合,其政治传统是多元的,在文本方面有着诸多创新之处,是一场关于法律、规范、价值观和制度选择与世界的持续对话。

[1] Abhinav Chandrachud, Republic of Rhetoric Free Speech and the Constitution of India (New Delhi:Penguin,2017),p.1.

[2] Constituent Assembly Debate ,Vol.11(Lok Sabha Secretariat,1986),p.977,November 25,1949.

[3] Claude Klein and Andras Sajo,“Constitution-Making:Process and Substance”,in Michel Rosenfeld and Andra Sajo eds., Oxford Handbook of Comparative Constitution Law (Oxford University Press,2012),pp.419-441.

[4] Sunil Khilnani,Vikram Raghavan and Arun K.Thiruvengadam eds., Comparative Constitutionalism in South Asia (Oxford University Press,2013).

[5] Shibani Kinkar Chaube, Constituent Assembly of India Springboard for Revolution (2nd edition)(New Delhi:Manohar Publishers,2000),p.45.

[6] Granville Austin, The Indian Constitution Cornerstone of a Nation (Oxford University Press,2000),p.7.

[7] Bidyut Chakrabarty, Constitutionalizing India An Ideational Project (Oxford University Press,2018),pp.225-226.

[8] Constituent Assembly Debates ,Vol.7(Lok Sabha Secretariat,1986),pp.36-37,November 4,1948.

[9] Census of India, Paper No .1: Language 1951 Census (India Census Commissioner,1954),pp.6-7.

[10] Constituent Assembly Debates ,Vol.9(Lok Sabha Secretariat,1986),p.1433,September 14,1949.

[11] Reba Som,“Jawaharlal Nehru and the Hindu Code:A Victory of Symbol over Substance?” Modern Asian Studies ,Vol.28 No.1(1994),p.165.

[12] 按照当时的统计,虽然穆斯林联盟宣布抵制选举,但是这种抵制并不彻底,当时穆斯林联盟的70名候选人最终仍有23人参加选举。参见Reba Som,“Jawaharlal Nehru and the Hindu Code:A Victory of Symbol over Substance?”, Modern Asian Studies ,Vol.28 No.1(1994),p.165.

[13] Some Facts of the Consitutent Assembly ,The Lok Sabha,Retrieved on November 19,2019,https://www.constitutionofindia.net/constituent_assembly_members.

[14] Constituent Assembly Debate ,Vol.11(Lok Sabha Secretariat,1986),p.978,November 25,1949.

[15] Constituent Assembly Debates ,Vol.11(Lok Sabha Secretariat,1986),pp.975-976,November 25,1949.

[16] 当然对于安贝德卡尔的观点,甘地认为“赞同安贝德卡尔的观点会带来危险,因为从他跟我那么多的对话可以看出,他并不区分事实与非事实、暴力与非暴力。他遵从的唯一原则就是,为实现他的目的不择手段。因此,如果你面对的那个人随时可以成为基督教、穆斯林或锡克教徒,然后还随时根据自身意愿切换身份,那你得小心”。参见 Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi ,Vol.85,July 16,October 20,1946(Publication Division,Ministry of Broadcasting and Information,Government of India,1982),p.102.

[17] Constituent Assembly Debate ,Vol.1(Lok Sabha Secretariat,1986),pp.58-59,December 13,1946.

[18] Constituent Assembly Debates ,Vol.9(Lok Sabha Secretariat,1986),p.1328,September 14,1949.

[19] Constituent Assembly Debates ,Vol.9(Lok Sabha Secretariat,1986),p.1328,September 14,1949.

[20] Constituent Assembly Debates ,Vol.9(Lok Sabha Secretariat,1986),p.1433,September 14,1949.

[21] 关于尼赫鲁在印度独立前后在语言问题上的立场和处理方式,可参见Robert D.King, Nehru and the Language Politics in India (Oxford University Press,1997).

[22] Constituent Assembly Debates ,Vol.9(Lok Sabha Secretariat,1986),p.1433,September 14,1949.

[23] Sunil Khilnani, The Idea of India (Farra,Straus and Biroux,1999),p.175.

[24] Paul R.Brass, Language Religion and Politics in North India (Cambridge University Press,1974),p.123.

[25] Paul R.Brass, Language Religion and Politics in North India (Cambridge University Press,1974).

[26] Constituent Assembly Debate ,Vol.7(Lok Sabha Secretariat,1986),pp.540-552,November 23,1948.

[27] Constituent Assembly Debate ,Vol.7(Lok Sabha Secretariat,1986),pp.548-549,November 23,1948.

[28] Constituent Assembly Debate ,Vol.7(Lok Sabha Secretariat,1986),p.548,November 23,1948.

[29] Constituent Assembly Debate ,Vol.7(Lok Sabha Secretariat,1986),pp.542-543,November 23,1948.

[30] Constituent Assembly Debate ,Vol.7(Lok Sabha Secretariat,1986),pp.542-543,November 23,1948.

[31] Reba Som,“Jawaharlal Nehru and the Hindu Code:A Victory of Symbol over Substance?”, Modern Asian Studies ,Vol.28 No.1(1994),p.165.

[32] Narendra Subramanian,“Making Family and Nation:Hindu Marriage Law in Early Postcolonial India”, Journal of Asian Studies ,Vol.69 No.3(2010),pp.771-798.

[33] Bidyut Chakrabarty, Constitutionalizing India An Ideational Project (Oxford University Press,2018),pp.237-238.

[34] Hanner Lerner,“The Indian Founding:A Comparative Perspective”,in Sujit Choudhry,Madhav Khosla and Pratap Bhanu Mehta eds., The Oxford Handbook of the Indian Constitution (New Delhi:Oxford University Press,2016),p.67.

[35] Constituent Assembly Debate ,Vol.7(Lok Sabha Secretariat,1986),pp.244-251,November 5,1948.

[36] Constituent Assembly Debate ,Vol.7(Lok Sabha Secretariat,1986),p.491,November 19,1948.

[37] Constituent Assembly Debate ,Vol.7(Lok Sabha Secretariat,1986),p.494,November 19,1948.

[38] Constituent Assembly Debate ,Vol.7(Lok Sabha Secretariat,1986),p.494,November 19,1948.

[39] Hanner Lerner,“The Indian Founding:A Comparative Perspective”,in Sujit Choudhry,Madhav Khosla and Pratap Bhanu Mehta eds., The Oxford Handbook of the Indian Constitution (New Delhi:Oxford University Press,2016),p.61.

[40] Marc Galanter,“Secularism,East and West”,in Rajeev Bhargava ed., Secularism and Its Critics (Oxford University Press,1998),pp.234-267;Gary Jacobson, The Wheel of Law India ' s Secularism in Comparative Perspective (New Jersey:Princeton University Press,2006).

[41] BN Rau, India ' s Constitution in the Making (Orient Longman,1960),pp.360-366.

[42] Orit Rozin,“Forming a Collective Identity:The Debate over the Proposed Constitution,1948-1950”, Journal of Israeli History ,Vol.26 No.2,2007,pp.251-271.

[43] Anuradha Dingwaney Needham and Rajeswari Sunder Rajan eds., The Crisis of Secularism in India (Duke University Press,2007).

[44] Jawaharlal Nehru, The Discovery of India (Oxford University Press,1989),p.384.

[45] “Report of the Committee appointed by the All India Conference to Determine the Principles of the Constitution for India,1928”,in Ravinder Kumar and Hari Dev Sharma eds., Selected Works of Motilal Nehru ,Vol.6(New Delhi:Vikas Publishing,1995),p.27.

[46] Constituent Assembly Debate ,Vol.5(Lok Sabha Secretariat,1986),p.839,November 23,1949.

[47] Jawaharlal Nehru,Report of the Union Powers Committee,July 5,1947.转引自Bidyut Chakrabarty, Constitutionalizing India An Ideational Project (Oxford University Press,2018),pp.232-233。

[48] K.H.Cheluva Raju,“Dr.B.R.Ambedkar and Making of the Constitution:A Case Study of Indian Federalism”, The Indian Journal of Political Science ,Vol.52,No.2(1991),p.156.

[49] Constituent Assembly Debate ,Vol.1(Lok Sabha Secretariat,1986),p.102,December 17,1946.

[50] 当代印度关于宪法道德理念的讨论开始转向。随着强势政府的确立,人们更在意政府在面对民众诉求时的麻木反应,当前印度政党面对在宪法道德理念下的责任和义务,其执政时和在野时的态度是不同的,执政以后选择性的忘却政治宽容和自我约束,因此有观点指出如今印度政治体系是非道德的,应当重新建立宪法道德理念对政府和民众的同等道德约束[参见Andre Béteille,“Constitutional Morality”, Economic and Political Weekly ,Vol.43,No.40(Oct.4-10,2008),pp.35-42].

[51] Bidyut Chakrabarty, Constitutionalizing India An Ideational Project (Oxford University Press,2018),p.253.

[52] Constituent Assembly Debate ,Vol.2(Lok Sabha Secretariat,1986),pp.322-323,November 8,1948.

[53] 当然有观点认为相关改动是出于狭隘的政治目的和取悦于自身票仓的行为,参见Madhav Godbole, The Judiciary and Governance in India (New Delhi:Rupa,2009),p.32.

[54] The Constitution Twenty - fourth Amendment Act ,1971,https://www.india.gov.in/my-government/constitution-india/amendments/constitution-india-twenty-fourth-amendment-act-1971.

[55] “The Case that Saved Indian Democracy”, The Hindu ,April 24,2014,https://www. thehindu.com/opinion/op-ed/the-case-that-saved-indian-democracy/article4647800.ece.

[56] G.G.Mirchandani, Subverting the Constitution (Delhi:Abhinav Publications,1977),especially chapter 4,“A Mini-Constitution”,pp.98-114.

[57] Granville Austin, Working A Democratic Constitution A History of the Indian Experience (Oxford University Press,2019),p.258.

[58] Subhas C.Kashyap, Indian Constitution Conflicts and Controversies (New Delhi:Vistara Publications,2010),p.246.

[59] Subhas C.Kashyap, Indian Constitution Conflicts and Controversies (New Delhi:Vistara Publications,2010),p.247.

[60] Subhas C.Kashyap, Indian Constitution Conflicts and Controversies (New Delhi:Vistara Publications,2010),pp.247-248.

[61] Ivor Jennings, The Law and the Constitution 3 rd Edition (London University Press,1943),p.146.

[62] Paul Craig,“Constitutional and Non-Constitutional Review”, Current Legal Problem ,Issue 147,2001,pp.148-150.

[63] Alexander M.Bickel, The Least Dangerous Branch The Supreme Court at the Bar of Politics 2 nd Edition (Vail-Ballou,1986),p.16.

[64] Bidyut Chakrabarty, Constitutionalizing India An Ideational Project (Oxford University Press,2018),p.248.

[65] “All-party Meet Vows to Uphold Parliament Supremacy”, The New Indian Express ,August 2,2013,https://www.newindianexpress.com/nation/2013/aug/02/All-party-meet-vows-to-uphold-Parliament-supremacy-502835.html.

[66] B.Shiva Rao ed., The Framing of India ' s Constitution Select Documents Vol .2 (New Delhi:Universal Law Publising,2012),p.75.

[67] B.Shiva Rao ed., The Framing of India ' s Constitution Select Documents Vol .2 (New Delhi:Universal Law Publising,2012),p.75.

[68] B.Shiva Rao ed., The Framing of India ' s Constitution Select Documents Vol .1(New Delhi:Universal Law Publising,2012),p.59.

[69] Constituent Assembly Debates ,Vol.7(Lok Sabha Secretariat,1986),p.714,December 1,1948.

[70] Constituent Assembly Debates ,Vol.7(Lok Sabha Secretariat,1986),p.775,December 1,1948.

[71] Constituent Assembly Debates ,Vol.7(Lok Sabha Secretariat,1986),p.40,December 1,1948.

[72] Constituent Assembly Debates ,Vol.7(Lok Sabha Secretariat,1986),p.763,December 1,1948.

[73] Constituent Assembly Debates ,Vol.7(Lok Sabha Secretariat,1986),p.771,December 1,1948.

[74] Ramachandra Guha, Democrats and Dissents (New Delhi:Penguin Random House,2016),p.25.

[75] Ramachandra Guha, India After Gandhi The History of the World ' s Largest Democracy (New York:Ecco,2007),p.174.

[76] Vallabhbhai Patel and Shankar Prasada eds., Sardar Patel ' s correspondence ,1945-1950,Vol.10(New Deohi:Navajivan Publishing House,1974),pp.10-13.

[77] Vallabhbhai Patel and Shankar Prasada eds., Sardar Patel ' s Correspondence ,1945-1950,Vol.10(New Deohi:Navajivan Publishing House,1974),pp.356-357.

[78] Tathagata Roy, The Life and Times of Dr Syama Prasad Mookerjee A Complete Biography (New Delhi:Prabhat Prakashan,2012),p.81.

[79] Tathagata Roy, The Life and Times of Dr Syama Prasad Mookerjee A Complete Biography (New Delhi:Prabhat Prakashan,2012),p.296.

[80] Granville Austin, Working A Democratic Constitution A History of the Indian Experience (Oxford University Press,2019),pp.42-45.

[81] 1950 AIR 124。原告负责出版发行《十字路口》( Cross Roads )杂志,该杂志主要宣扬左翼观点,因此马德拉斯邦政府援引该法第9(1-A)款之规定原因禁止《十字路口》的出版和发行,原告诉称该法案过度扩展了“公共秩序”的范围,限制了自己的出版自由权,侵犯了宪法第十九条赋予自己的公民言论自由权。马德拉斯邦政府则辩称政府基于公共安全和公共秩序的原因限制该杂志的出版发行,这符合宪法第十九条第二款规定的基于国家安全原因合理限制言论自由权的情形。印度最高法院于1950年5月26日裁定《马德拉斯邦公共秩序法》( the Madras Maintenance of Public Order Act ,1949)违宪。

[82] Ashish K.Mishra,“Inside the Network18 Takeover”, LiveMint ,June 25,2014,https://www.livemint.com/Companies/rqT2Oi8fwv4XVjJcHzlcVN/Inside-the-Network18-takeover.html.

[83] Krishn Kaushik,“The Big Five:The Media Companies That the Modi Government Must Scrutinise To Fulfill its Promise of Ending Crony Capitalism”, The Cravan ,January 19,2016,https://caravanmagazine.in/vantage/the-big-five-the-media-companies-that-the-modi-government-must-scrutinise-to-fu-lfill-its-promise-of-ending-crony-capitalism.

[84] Ramachandra Guha, India After Gandhi The History of the World ' s Largest Democracy (New York:Ecco,2007),p.285.

[85] Ramachandra Guha, India After Gandhi The History of the World ' s Largest Democracy (New York:Ecco,2007),p.285.

[86] “National Integration Council reconstituted”, The Hindu ,April 13,2012,https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/National-Integration-Council-reconstituted/article16365938.ece.

[87] Granville Austin, Working A Democratic Constitution A History of the Indian Experience (Oxford University Press,2019),p.51.

[88] 据研究,誓词草案是由后来担任印度总理的夏斯特里(Lal Bahadur Shastri)所写,Granville Austin, Working A Democratic Constitution A History of the Indian Experience (Oxford University Press,2019),p.52.

[89] 《非法活动(预防)法》历经两次修改,2004年在废除《防止恐怖主义法》( the Prevention of Terrorism Act ,POTA)的同时,《非法活动(预防)法》加入反恐内容,明确了对恐怖主义的界定,明确该法适用于对付煽动恐怖主义的行为和言论,禁止对恐怖主义提供资助等内容。2008年,孟买恐怖袭击之后,印度议会通过《非法活动(预防)法》(修正案),扩大了惩罚恐怖活动的范围和提高了政府处理恐怖主义袭击的权限,不仅授权成立国家调查局,还明确恐怖主义袭击嫌疑人的拘押期限从90天增加为180天,同时允许设立特别法庭,为通过司法手段应对恐怖主义提供了保障。

[90] Section 3,4,10, Unlawful Activities Prevention Act ,1967,Ministry of Home Affairs,https://mha.gov.in/sites/default/files/A1967-37_0.pdf.

[91] Section 13, Unlawful Activities Prevention Act ,1967,Ministry of Home Affairs,https://mha.gov.in/sites/default/files/A1967-37_0.pdf.

[92] “Map of Kashmir lands Economist in censor trouble”, Hindustan Times ,May 24,2011,https://www.hindustantimes.com/delhi-news/map-of-kashmir-lands-economist-zin-zcensor-ztrouble/story-0Dk3GPzysf2UhtI69cTS3K.html.

[93] “Economist accuses India of censorship over Kashmir map”, BBC ,May 24,2011,https://www.bbc.com/news/world-south-asia-13529512.

[94] “‘Chowkidar chor hai’:Rahul expresses‘regret’in affidavit against contempt plea”, The Hindu ,April 29,2019,https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/chowkidar-chor-hai-rahuls-affidavit-against-contempt-plea-expresses-regret/article26978958.ece.

[95] Jawaharlal Nehru, The Unity of India Collected Writings 1937-1940(L.Drummond,1948).

[96] Granville Austin, The Indian Constitution Cornerstone of a Nation ,(Oxford University Press,2000),pp.311-320.

[97] Granville Austin, The Indian Constitution Cornerstone of a Nation ,(Oxford University Press,2000),p.264.

[98] Hindustan Times ,November 27,1949.

[99] Constituent Assembly Debate ,Vol.11(Lok Sabha Secretariat,1986),p.974,November 25,1949.

[100] B.Shiva Rao ed., The Framing of India ' s Constitution Select Documents Vol.1(New Delhi:Universal Publishing House,2004),p.835.

[101] Rajni Kothari, Politics in India (New Delhi:Orient Longman,2005),p.107.

[102] Lawrence Sager,“The Domain of Constitutional Justice”,in Larry Alexander ed., Constitutionalism Philosophical Foundations (Cambridge University Press,1998),p.235.

[103] Constituent Assembly Debate ,Vol.11(Lok Sabha Secretariat,1986),p.993,November 26,1949.

[104] Sunil Khilnani,“The Indian Constitution and Democracy”,in Zoya Hasan,E Sridharan and R Sudarshan,eds., India ' s Living Constitution Ideas Practices Controversies (Permanent Black,2002),p.64.

[105] 参见Ramachandra Guha, India after Gandhi The History of World ' s Largest Democracy (New Delhi:Picador,2007);Ashutaosh Varshney, Battles Half Won India ' s Improbable Democracy (New Delhi:Penguin,2013). FPTYoUUrO9QnvkPYrRgCc2pENzqlK/0i/Ul32y37uhinRjeaEsFM/+qb68SqeCIr

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