下载掌阅APP，畅读海量书库
立即打开
The production of material information is the basis for the survival and development of human society.The production of material data refers to the process in which laborers use labor data to process labor objects according to their intended purpose, and change the shape or nature of labor objects to make it suitable for people’s needs.The production of material data must have three basic elements: labor of the worker, labor data, and labor object.①Labor of the worker: A person with labor capacity and labor experience has a purposeful activity in the production process.Among them, labor refers to the labor capacity of a person; labor refers to a person with labor capacity; labor refers to the exertion of a person’s labor capacity.②Labor data: All material data that people use to transmit their mental and physical labor to the labor object, mainly referring to production tools.It also includes all other means of production except labor objects and production tools, such as buildings and roads.③Labor object: the object of labor processing.The means of labor and the objects of labor are called means of production, which are indispensable material conditions for people to engage in production.Only by combining with the means of production, workers can produce and create material wealth.Objective factors for the production of material information.Whether it is a primitive society with very low productivity or a modern society with relatively developed productivity, people’s labor process must have these three basic elements.Without any of these elements, production cannot be carried out.In addition to the two basic elements of labor and means of production, factors such as management and science and technology also play an important role in the production process.
In the process of producing material data, people must obtain all types of material data they need from the natural world and have a relationship with the natural world, thereby forming social productivity.The production of material information is not the isolated production of a single person.The collective nature of human production activities determines that people must also have relationships with each other in the production process, thereby forming a social production relationship.The material production of any society includes both productivity and production relations.
Ⅰ Productivity
People’s ability to conquer nature, transform nature, and produce material materials reflects the relationship between man and nature.
1.Measurement: Labor productivity, that is, the number of products produced during per unit time.
2.The composition of productivity.Includes human factors and physical factors: workers’ labor and means of production.The laborer is the main body of the production process and the leading factor in productivity.Laborers create production tools, use and improve production tools, and increase the efficiency of production tools.The physical factor refers to the means of production.Among the means of production, production tools play the most important role.Advanced production tools can reduce human labor intensity and save time.It is the most important indicator of the development level and development status of social productivity.It is also the main symbol of dividing the economic era.Human society has gone through four economic times.Hunting and gathering economy (hereinafter referred to as “harvesting economy”) (stone tools), agricultural economy (ironware), industrial economy (mechanization), and information economy (PC).Science and technology also played an important role in the development of productive forces.Science and technology are systematic experiences summarized by people from production practices and scientific experiments.Marx believes that “science and technology are also included in productivity”.Deng Xiaoping proposed that “science and technology are the primary productive forces”.Science and technology will penetrate the means of production and labor capacity, improve people’s ability to transform and conquer nature, improve and perfect production tools, improve labor skills, increase labor productivity, and make the same amount Even fewer workers can produce larger quantities and higher quality products in the same amount of time.It can be considered:
Ⅱ Production relationship
Production relationship: The relationship between people during the production process.There are two levels of production relations: narrow and broad.The narrow production relationship refers to the relationship that occurs in the direct process of acquiring natural resources and processing.Such as the relationship between managers and workers in the enterprise.Generalized production relationship, the relationship formed from the process of obtaining natural resources to the final consumption of products produced by these resources.In the absence of money, people often obtain relevant products through distribution first, and then obtain the products they need to consume through exchange.This production relationship, which includes production, distribution, and consumption relations, is a generalized production relationship.The research object of political economy is the production relations in a broad sense including the production relations in a narrow sense.Production relations are the most basic relations in human social relations.
Productivity determines production relations, and production relations affect productivity.When the production relationship meets the needs of the development of the productive forces, it can promote the development of the productive forces, otherwise it will hinder the development of the productive forces.At this time, the production relations will change to adapt to the development and changes of the productive forces.Whether the relationship between people in a company is harmonious can promote or inhibit productivity.
The economic foundation is the sum of production relations, that is, the sum of people’s production, distribution, and consumption relations constitutes the economic foundation of society.The superstructure is a political, legal system and social ideology built on the economic foundation and adapted to the economic foundation.The economic foundation determines the superstructure.The superstructure acts on the economic foundation.The superstructure serves the economic foundation.When the superstructure adapts to the economic foundation, it promotes social progress, otherwise it hinders social progress.
Marx summarized the rules of the development of human society as the process of continuous development and evolution of the social structure composed of productivity-production relations (economic foundation) superstructure.In this process, productivity is the most active and revolutionary factor.It is the determining force, and the determining role of productivity is transmitted to the superstructure through the production relationship.At the same time, the superstructure’s reaction to the production relationship affects the development of productivity through the reaction of the production relationship to the productivity.It is generally believed that the research object of political economy is towards undestanding of production relations and its development law.But it is not an independent study of production relations, but research of production relations and their development laws in the process of contradictions between productivity and production relations, economic foundation and superstructure.
Use value : the usefulness of the commodity, that is, the attribute that the commodity can meet people’s certain needs.The nature of use value: First, the use value of a commodity is determined by its natural attributes (not subject to human thought and will), and is determined by the physical, chemical, biological, and other attributes of the item.Various articles have different natural attributes, can meet people’s different needs, and have different use values.For example, food can meet people’s needs for nutrients, houses can meet people’s needs for shelter from the wind or rain, and machines can meet people’s needs for production activities.Books can meet people’s spiritual and cultural needs.Second, it must be the use value of labor products.For example, the use value of sunlight in the natural world can only be the use value of general items.Use value is not unique to a commodity, but any commodity must have use value.Third, the use value of a commodity is produced for people other than the producer, not for the producer’s own consumption needs.Commodities must be exchanged to transfer use value to those who need it in society.Use value is the material bearer of exchange value.Fourth, the use value of commodities reflects the relationship between man and nature, and does not change with changes in social production relations.For example, wheat, whether produced by serfs or hired workers, has a use value that meets human nutritional needs, and it will not be different.In other words, the use value of goods does not reflect a particular social production relationship.
Exchange value : Once the items with use value enter the market for exchange, they have exchange value.The exchange value is first expressed as a quantitative relationship or proportion in which one use value is exchanged with another use value.For example, a farmer exchanges 20 kg of millet for another farmer’s 8-foot cloth, and the 8-foot cloth is the exchange value of 20 kg of millet.
Value : Why is the exchange value of 20 pounds of Xiaomi equal to 8 feet of cloth or a hoe? What determines the exchange ratio between different commodities? Marx believes that the production of commodities consumes a certain amount of human brainpower and physical strength.Such mental and physical expenditures are ordinary human labor with no difference.This labor is homogeneous and can be compared in quantity.General human labor condensed in commodities is value.As long as labor is added and water is processed into mineral water, it has value and can be exchanged with other commodities.Different commodities contain different values.The values are qualitatively the same.Only the difference in quantity can be compared with each other in terms of quantity.The reason why commodities with different use values can be exchanged with each other in a certain proportion is precisely because they have condensed as much human labor.
The nature of value: First, value is the social attribute of goods.It embodies the social relationship of exchange of labor among commodity producers.Second, the value is realized after the goods are sold.
The relationship between value and exchange value : The value of a commodity is inherently abstract and cannot be manifested by itself.Performance can only be achieved by swapping with another commodity.Exchange value is the external concrete manifestation.Value is the basis of exchange value, and exchange value is just a manifestation of value.
The relationship between value and use value : Commodities are opposites of value and use value.Unity is indispensable.Use value is the material bearer of value.There is no value without use value, and it will not be a commodity, such as waste products that appear in the production process.Although it consumes labor, it has no use value and cannot be used for exchange, so it cannot be a commodity.There is use value but no value can not become a commodity, such as air sunlight, is not a product of human labor, does not have value, so it is not a commodity; there are also some things that are both labor products and use value, but not for exchange but What is used for own consumption is still not a commodity.Therefore, it must have both use value and value as a commodity.Opposition is manifested in not being able to possess at the same time.A party as a commodity exchange cannot obtain both the value of the commodity and the value of the commodity at the same time.To realize the value of the commodity, it is necessary to surrender the value of the commodity.The key to this contradiction is the smooth exchange of goods.
Specific labor: Different commodities have different forms of labor to produce them.For example, the production of bread requires the labor of a baker.They use tools such as ovens to process raw materials such as flour to produce bread.In order to produce goods that meet various needs, people have to carry out various specific forms of labor.Labor performed under specific forms is called concrete labor.Specific labor creates the use value of commodities.
Specific labor is not the sole source of the use value or material wealth it produces.Only when specific labor is combined with natural material can it create use value.Without land minerals and other natural materials, specific labor cannot create any use value.Therefore, the British scholar William said that “labor is the father of wealth and land is the mother of wealth”.Land here refers broadly to natural matter.Therefore, specific labor reflects the natural attributes of labor, reflects the relationship between man and nature, and is an eternal condition for the existence and development of human society.
Abstract labor : Although the labor for the production of various commodities differs in specific forms, they all consume human mental and physical labor.This kind of indiscriminate general human labor aside from the specific form of labor is abstract labor.Abstract labor forms value, concrete labor production and use value, and abstract labor production value.Different specific labors are qualitatively different and therefore cannot be quantitatively compared.Abstract labor condensed in different commodities is qualitatively the same, only quantitative difference.The reason why various commodities with different use values can be compared and exchanged with each other is because they are all condensed with abstract labor and have value.Specific labor and natural materials together constitute the source of use value.Abstract labor is the sole source of value.Abstract labor, as a value entity, is condensed in commodities and cannot be seen or touched, and can only be manifested in the process of commodity exchange.It reflects the social relationship between people and is the social attribute of labor.
The duality of labor determines two factors of the commodity: specific labor creates the use value of the commodity, and abstract labor forms the value of the commodity.The doctrine of the duality of labor was first discovered by Marx, who himself saw it as “a hub for understanding political economy.”
Individual working hours and socially necessary working hours.The value of various commodities is qualitatively the same, and they are all general human labor condensed in the commodity.The magnitude of the value of the commodity is determined by the general human labor condensed in the commodity.The measure of the amount of labor is labor time, and the amount of value is measured by the labor time it takes to produce a commodity.Some people are more skilled in producing the same kind of goods, some are less skilled, some use more advanced tools, and some have less advanced supply equipment.The labor time consumed by various producers varies.Individual labor time, labor time (
t
) required by a single commodity producer to produce a unit of merchandise.Socially necessary labor time, the value of a commodity is determined by the average of the individual labor hours of the various producers who produce the commodity.This average is called the socially necessary labor time, and the average labor time for all commodity producers to produce units of goods.(
T
) Calculation formula
Table 1-1 Calculation formula of average working time
The socially necessary labor time is strictly defined as the time required to produce a certain use value under the average production proficiency and labor intensity of the society under the normal production conditions of the existing society.
The so-called normal production conditions in the existing society refer to the current level of technology and equipment that has been reached in the production of most products in a certain production sector.If the annual production of cotton yarn in the whole society is 1 million pieces, of which 800,000 pieces are produced by textile machines, and only 200,000 pieces are produced by hand spinning wheels, then the use of spinning machines is the existing social normality of the cotton spinning sector.Production conditions.
Under the normal production conditions of the society, each worker who produces the same commodity has different labor proficiency and labor intensity.In the same working time, skilled labor and high-intensity labor can create more value than unskilled labor and low-intensity labor.The amount of value is directly proportional to the necessary labor time of the society.
Socially necessary working hours are essential for commodity producers.If the individual labor time of the unit of production of the commodity producer is higher than the socially necessary labor time, the excess labor cost will not be recognized by the society, and it will not be compensated.It will be at a disadvantage in market competition, and will lose money or even lose money, bankruptcy.If the individual labor time of a unit of goods produced by a commodity producer is lower than the socially necessary labor time, and the commodity producer still sells his goods according to the value determined by the socially necessary labor time, he will be in a favorable position in the competition and can get more gains.Therefore, the necessary labor time in society stimulates the producers to improve their technology, increase labor productivity, and promote the development of social productivity, which plays a very important role in the development of the commodity economy.
Definition of labor productivity: the number of products produced per unit of time or the time it takes to produce a unit of product.The value of a commodity is determined by the socially necessary labor time to produce it.However, the socially necessary labor time is not fixed but changes with changes in labor productivity.Therefore, investigating the law of changes in the value of commodities is mainly examining the relationship between the value of commodities and labor productivity.Labor productivity can be expressed by the number of products produced per unit of labor time.It is expressed by the formula: labor productivity = product volume/labor time.Determinants of labor productivity: the skill level of the workers, the level of science and technology, the socially integrated form of the production process (division and collaboration, organizational management), the quality of the means of production, and the quality of natural conditions, etc..
The relationship between the value of unit commodities and social labor productivity.Labor productivity is the productivity of workers.It includes social labor productivity and individual labor productivity.Social labor productivity refers to the labor efficiency of all laborers in a production sector in the same period to produce the same labor product; individual labor productivity refers to the labor efficiency of individual labor producers to produce a product.Labor productivity is directly proportional to the amount of value in use of goods and inversely proportional to the amount of value of units of goods.The value of a unit commodity is directly proportional to the socially necessary labor time for producing the commodity, proportional to the complexity of labor, and inversely proportional to the labor productivity of the society.
The development of commodity value forms has gone through four stages of development: simple or accidental value forms; total and expanded value forms; general value forms; and monetary forms.Money is the product of the development of commodity production and commodity exchange to a certain stage, and is the inevitable result of the inherent contradiction development of commodities.After the emergence of money, it played the role of a general equivalent, and the value of all commodities was expressed in money.The contradiction between the intrinsic use value and value of a commodity is externalized into the opposition of commodities and currency.
The function of money is determined by the nature of money, and it is a concrete manifestation of the nature of money.In a developed commodity economy, money has five functions.
First, the value scale is the primary function of money.The so-called value scale is to measure and express the value of all other commodities with money as the scale.Second, the means of currency circulation is to serve as a medium for commodity exchange.Third,in the circulation of goods, after the goods owner sells the goods in exchange for money, he no longer buys other goods, but saves the money.At this time, the money in his hands becomes the storage currency, which is the function of money as a storage means.Fourth, the purchase and sale of goods were initially paid in cash.With the development of commodity circulation, the phenomenon of deferred payment on credit purchase and sale of credit appeared.After a certain period of time after the purchase of the goods, the arrears were paid.At this time, the currency performed the function of payment means.As a means of payment, currency was originally used to pay off debts, and later it was used to pay rent, interest, and wages.Fifth, the function of the world currency is the function of currencies that go beyond national borders and perform general equivalents in the world market.
The law that determines the amount of money required for circulation in a certain period of time is the law of currency circulation.The content of this law is the amount of money as a means of circulation, which depends on three factors: (1) the number of commodities to be circulated; (2) the price level of commodities; (3) the velocity of currency circulation.The product of the first two items is the total price of the product.The amount of money required in circulation is directly proportional to the total price of the commodity, and inversely proportional to the speed of currency circulation, expressed by the formula:
Ⅰ The total capital formula and its contradictions
The currency circulation formula for commodities is:
W (commodity)-G (currency)-W (commodity)
That is, commodity producers sell the goods they produce, exchange them for currencies, and then use these currencies to buy the goods they need.
The capital circulation formula is:
G (currency)-W (commodity)-G (currency)
That is to say, the capital purchases a specific commodity with a certain amount of currency, and then sells the commodity and exchanges it back for currency.The capital circulation formula G—W—G′ reflects the common characteristics of various capital movements such as industrial capital, commercial capital, and borrowed capital.It is applicable to all forms of capital, and is therefore the general formula for capital.The contradiction of the general formula.The general formula of capital contradicts the law of value in form.Because according to the requirements of the law of value, commodity exchange must follow the principle of equivalent exchange, and value multiplication does not occur in circulation.However, the total capital formula shows that after two phases of trading, the value of currency has increased in circulation.
First of all, value multiplication does not occur in currencies in the G-W stage, because currency is used as a means of circulation and a means of payment here only to realize the value of the goods it purchases.Secondly, the increase in value cannot occur at the W-G stage, because the sale of goods can only change the value from the form of goods to the form of money, without changing the amount of value.In the end, value multiplication must occur on commodities in the G-W stage.The owner of the money must purchase a special kind of commodity, which has a special use value.Through its use, it can create value, and it can create greater value than its own value.This particular commodity is labor.Therefore, labor becomes a commodity, which is the prerequisite for the conversion of money into capital.
Ⅱ Buying and selling of labor
The labor force is a person’s ability to work, which is the sum of physical and mental strength in a living human body.In any society, labor is the basic element of social production.However, it became a commodity only under certain historical conditions.
First, there are two basic conditions for labor to become a commodity: the laborer must be personally free, have the right to control his own labor force, and be able to sell it as a commodity; you have nothing, you have to live by selling labor.These two basic conditions were formed during the long-term development of history.
Second, the value and use value of labor goods.The value of labor goods is determined by the socially necessary labor time to produce and reproduce labor.Since the labor force exists in the living body, its production and reproduction is to maintain, restore and continue the physical and mental strength of the laborers, which requires the consumption of certain means of living.Therefore, the time required to produce labor can be converted into the time required to produce these means of living.It includes three parts: the value of the means of living necessary for the worker himself to reproduce his labor force; the value of the means of living necessary for the worker to raise his children to continue the supply of labor; labor education and training expenses are used to train labor required for capitalist reproduction.
Ⅰ Capitalist labor process and value multiplication process
Value appreciation process.We first analyze the capitalist production process as a process of value formation.Suppose that the capitalist asks the worker to produce 10 kg of cotton yarn, which consumes 10 kg of cotton and costs 10 yuan.The value of worn equipment and other labor materials is 2 yuan.The value of the daily labor is 3 yuan.The worker can be created in 6 hours of labor.It takes 6 hours of labor to produce 10 kg of cotton yarn.When the worker spins 10 kg of cotton into cotton yarn after 6 hours of labor, the material form of cotton changes, and the original use value no longer exists.However, its value has not disappeared.Instead, it has been transferred to the new product cotton yarn and becomes part of the value of cotton yarn.Similarly, the value of worn parts of labor materials such as machinery and equipment is also transferred to cotton yarn.This transfer is achieved by the specific labor of the worker.While workers produce cotton yarn with specific labor, they also spend a certain amount of abstract labor, which condenses to form new value in the commodity.6 hours of labor created a new value of 3 yuan.In this way, the value of 10 pounds of cotton yarn is equal to the value of the transfer of production materials of 12 yuan, plus the newly created value of 3 yuan, for a total of 15 yuan.This is equal to the value paid by capitalists to purchase means of production and labor.This result is meaningless to the capitalist.In order to realize the purpose of capital value increase, the capitalist will inevitably change the value formation process into a value increase process.
When the capitalist buys a worker’s labor for one day, he/she obtains the right to use the labor for one day.Although workers work 6 hours a day, they can produce labor value.However, in order to produce surplus value, capitalists must extend the working hours of workers to more than 6 hours.Assume that the capitalists let the workers work 12 hours a day, then the workers will produce 20 kg of cotton yarn and consume 20 kg of cotton, valued at 20 yuan; the wear of machinery and equipment will also double, and the value will be 4 yuan; In the production process, the specific labor transfer value of the workers is 24 yuan, and 12 hours of abstract labor creates a new value of 6 yuan.As a result, the value of 20 kg of cotton yarn is 30 yuan in total, and the capitalist’s prepaid value is 24 yuan in the value of the means of production and 27 yuan in the value of labor 3 yuan.The difference between the two is 3 yuan.It can be seen that the production of surplus value is due to the capitalist extending the labor time of the worker to more than the time required to compensate the value of the labor force, so that the value created by the worker exceeds the value of his labor force and realizes value multiplication.Through the above analysis, the contradiction of the total capital formula is finally resolved.
Ⅱ Constant capital and variable capital
Capital is always divided into two parts, one in the form of means of production and the other in the form of labor.They perform different functions in the process of value multiplication.According to their different roles in the production of surplus value, they are divided into constant capital and variable capital.
First, the part of capital that exists in the form of means of production is consumed in the production process, the form of use value changes, it is processed into a new product, and its value is transferred to the new product.This transfer does not change the amount of value, but the old value of the means of production is reproduced in the new product, so it is called constant capital ( c ).
Second, the value of the part of capital in the form of labor will not be transferred to new products in the production process.Because the value of labor paid by capitalists was consumed by workers to purchase means of subsistence.This part of the value is reproduced by workers in the production process.The use of labor not only regenerates the value of labor, but also produces surplus value, which changes the original capital value and realizes multiplication, so it is called variable capital ( v ).
Ⅰ Surplus value rate
The value of commodities under capitalist conditions consists of three components: the old value transferred as the means of production of constant capital, which is represented by c ; the part of the new value that compensates for variable capital, is represented by v ; Residual value part, expressed in m .
Since surplus value is the result of changes in variable capital, to show the degree of capitalist exploitation of workers.Constant capital must be removed, and only the proportional relationship between surplus value and variable capital must be examined.The ratio of surplus value to variable capital is the rate of surplus value.Using m ′ to represent the rate of surplus value, then m ′= m ∕ v .
Since the variable capital is produced by the worker during the necessary labor time, and the surplus value is produced by the worker during the remaining labor time, the rate of surplus value can also be expressed in this form, that is m ′ = surplus labor time/necessary labor time.The rate of surplus value is closely related to the amount of surplus value obtained by capitalists.The amount of surplus value depends on two factors, one is the level of the surplus value rate, and the other is the total amount of variable capital.Using m as the amount of surplus value, the formula for calculating the amount of surplus value is:
Therefore, there are two ways for capitalists to increase the amount of surplus value: one is to increase the total amount of variable capital and hire more workers; the other is to increase the rate of surplus value and squeeze more surplus value from each worker.Because the increase in the total amount of variable capital is limited by the amount of capital within a certain period of time, increasing the rate of surplus value has become the main way for capitalists to increase the amount of surplus value.
Ⅱ Absolute surplus value production
Absolute surplus value production refers to a method of extending the surplus labor time and increasing surplus value by absolutely extending the working day under the condition that the necessary labor time is unchanged.The surplus value produced as a result of the absolute extension of the working day is called absolute surplus value.In addition, the surplus value produced by individual enterprises due to increased labor intensity also belongs to absolute surplus value.
Ⅲ Relative surplus value production
Relative surplus value production is to increase the production of surplus value by changing the ratio of necessary labor time and surplus labor time in the working day.Under the condition that the working day is constant, the surplus value produced by shortening the necessary labor time and correspondingly extending the remaining labor time is called relative surplus value.
Ⅳ The relationship between absolute surplus value and relative surplus value
First, the two are essentially the same.Regardless of whether the workday is extended or labor productivity is increased, the result is an increase in workers’ surplus labor time, an increase in the degree of exploitation of workers, and an increase in the amount of surplus value.
Second, absolute surplus value production is the general basis of capitalist exploitation and the starting point for relative surplus value production, because surplus value can only be generated if the working day is extended above the necessary labor time.At the same time, only on the premise that the working day is divided into necessary working time and surpluse working time, they can further shorten necessary labor time, extend surplus labor time, and produce relative surplus value.
Third, the two methods of producing surplus value play different roles at different stages of the development of capitalism.In the early days of capitalism, capitalists exploited workers primarily by means of absolute surplus-value production.With the development of capitalism and the advancement of science and technology, especially after the emergence of the large machine industry, relative surplus value production has gradually become the main method for capitalists to increase the degree of exploitation.
Fourth, the law of surplus value is the basic economic law of capitalism.Its content is that the purpose and motivation of capitalist production is to pursue as much surplus value as possible.The means to achieve this goal is to continuously expand and strengthen the exploitation of wage labor.
Reasons shows as follows.The law of surplus value determines the essence of capitalist production; the law of surplus value determines all major aspects and processes of the development of capitalist production; the law of surplus value determines the whole process of the emergence, development and destruction of capitalist mode of production.
Ⅰ Simple reproduction of capitalism
The simple reproduction of capitalism means that the capitalist uses all the surplus value exploited for personal consumption, and reproduction is only repeated on the original scale.Assume that the production cycle is one year.The capital paid by the capitalist at the beginning of the year is 10,000 yuan, of which the constant capital is 8,000 yuan and the variable capital is 2,000 yuan.Assuming that the residual value rate is 100%, the value of the product after the end of the year-end production process is: 8000 c + 2000 v + 2000 m = 12000.The residual value of 2,000 yuan is used for capitalist personal consumption.In this way, the capital invested in production and the value of the products produced in the next year are still the same as in the previous year.Production is repeated on the original scale.This is simply capitalist reproduction.
Ⅱ Capitalism expands reproduction
The characteristic of capitalist reproduction is the expansion of reproduction.The expansion of capitalist reproduction means that the capitalist does not use all surplus value for personal consumption, but converts part of the surplus value into new capital for purchasing additional means of production and labor, so that production is repeated on the basis of expansion.The conversion of surplus value into capital, or capitalization of surplus value, is called capital accumulation.This shows that surplus value is the source of capital accumulation, and capital accumulation is an important source of expanding reproduction.
Ⅲ The essence of capital accumulation
Capital accumulation is transformed from surplus value, and surplus value created by the capitalist’s free possession of workers is transformed by the law of ownership of the production of goods.Under the conditions of production of goods, the producers of goods are all owners of goods with equal rights.Only by surrendering their own goods can they own the goods of others.They can only exchange equivalently.No one can possess others’ goods without compensation labor.This is the law of ownership in the production of goods.In a capitalist society, the capitalist, by virtue of his possession of the means of production, occupies the surplus labor of the workers free of charge; on this basis, he further unceasingly occupies more surplus labor for free, which is the law of capitalist occupation.
Ⅰ Organic composition of capital and its changing trend
The composition of capital can be examined from two aspects.From the perspective of value, capital is composed of a certain amount of constant capital and variable capital, and they maintain a certain proportional relationship.This ratio of constant capital to variable capital is called the value composition of capital.From a material point of view, capital is composed of a certain amount of means of production and labor, and they also maintain a certain proportional relationship.Generally speaking, this certain proportional relationship depends on the level of production technology, that is, the higher the level of technology, the greater the number of means of production used by each worker; otherwise, the less.This kind of proportional relationship between the means of production and labor determined by the level of production technology is called the technological composition of capital.There is a close relationship between the value composition of capital and the technical composition of capital.Generally speaking.The technological composition of capital determines the value composition of capital, and changes in technological composition will cause changes in value composition.The change in value composition usually reflects the change in technology composition.Marx called the organic value composition of capital, which is determined by the technical composition of capital and reflects changes in technological composition.Usually expressed as c : v .
With the continuous progress of science and technology and the development of the capitalist economy, especially after the emergence of the large machine industry, the organic composition of capital has continued to increase.This is because capitalists are personified capital.In order to squeeze more surplus value and defeat their opponents in the competition, they must do everything possible to adopt new technologies, update machinery and equipment, and promote labor productivity.At the same time, capital accumulation has increased capital, provided favorable conditions for capitalists to adopt advanced technologies, updated machinery and equipment, and strengthen division of labor and cooperation, thereby promoting the improvement of labor productivity.This will inevitably make the capital technology composition continue to increase, and consequently the capital organic composition.Therefore, the continuous improvement of the organic composition of capital is an inevitable trend in the development of capitalism.
Ⅱ Relative overpopulation
Reduced demand.With the continuous increase of the organic composition of capital, as capital accumulation continues to grow, the most serious impact on the fate of the proletariat is the creation of a relative surplus population.This is because, under the condition that the organic composition of capital increases, the increase in total capital means an absolute increase in the variable capital component.However, as the constant capital portion of the total capital is increasing, the variable capital portion is showing a relatively decreasing trend.Of course, the demand for capital for labor will be relatively reduced.Moveover, under the condition that the original investment is unchanged, due to the use of new technologies and new machinery and equipment, capital no longer needs to hire so many workers.As a result, there was a phenomenon that some “excessive” workers were fired, that is, “machines crowded out workers”, and the amount of capital needed for workers was definitely reduced.
Supply increases.First, due to the continuous advancement of production technology and the widespread use of machines, many operations have become simpler, and the physical requirements of workers have also been reduced, resulting in a large number of women and children flooding into the factory.Second, the development of capitalism prompts the rapid differentiation of small producers, the bankruptcy of a large number of peasants and craftsmen, and the joining of the labor force.Third, the fierce competition of capitalism has brought some small and medium capitalists into bankruptcy.They need to find another job, and many of them are forced to become hired laborers.
It can be seen that under the capitalist system, with the continuous growth of capital accumulation and the continuous improvement of the organic composition of capital, two opposing trends occur: on the one hand, the demand for capital’s labor force is relatively, or even absolutely, reduced On the other hand, the supply of labor is increasing rapidly.Consequently trends, a large number of workers will inevitably be unemployed, thus forming a demographic phenomenon unique to the capitalist system, that is, a relatively surplus population.
Three stages of industrial capital cycle and three functional forms.Capital increases value in a continuous circular movement, and the only capital that can increase value is industrial capital.Industrial capital refers to the capital of all production sectors operating in a capitalist manner, and it includes the capital of various material production sectors such as industry, agriculture, and construction.The cyclical movement of industrial capital has to go through three stages of purchase, production, and sales, which are connected to these three stages, and in turn take three functional forms: currency capital, production capital, and commodity capital.
First, the purchase phase.It is the industrial capitalist that uses the qualifications of a purchaser of goods to use monetary capital to buy goods such as means of production and labor as factors of production.Let be If G is the currency, W the commodity, A the labor force, and Pm is the means of production, then the purchase stage can be expressed asfollows:
Second, the production stage.At this stage, industrial capitalists use the qualifications of capitalist commodity producers to use the purchased labor and means of production for production.After the production process, labor is consumed, raw materials are processed, machinery and equipment are worn out, and commodities containing surplus value are produced.Compared with the original product, the value of the product at this time is not only different in the form of use value, but also the value is increased.Therefore, the second stage of the capital cycle is the stage in which production capital is transformed into commodity capital.If the production process is represented by P , the interruption of the circulation process is indicated by the dashed line, and W′ represents a commodity containing surplus value, then the production stage can be expressed by the following formula:
Third, the sales stage.At this stage, the capitalist sells the produced goods to the market and sells them back for money.At this time, capital returned to the original form of money.However, this currency is different from the original prepaid currency and has changed in quantity.In addition to the original prepaid currency, it has brought a new increase, that is, surplus value.In this way, commodity capital is transformed into increased monetary capital.Formulated as:
G ′= G + g , where G is the value of prepaid capital and g is the realized surplus value.
The industrial capital cycle is the process of starting from one form, going through three stages in turn, transforming three functional forms, increasing the value, and returning to the original starting point.Expressed in formula:
Ⅰ Simple reproduction of social capital
The simple reproduction of social capital refers to the reproduction of the social production scale on the original basis.Under the conditions of simple reproduction, all surplus value created by workers is used by capitalists for personal consumption, and there is no capital accumulation.
According to the principle that the total social product is divided into c , v , and m , and the social production is divided into two major categories according to the physical composition of the total social product, it is assumed that the constant capital of the first class is 4000 and the variable capital is 1000.The surplus value rate is 100%, the surplus value is 1000, the constant capital of the second class is 2000, the variable capital is 500, the surplus value rate is 100%, and the surplus value is 500.The composition of total social products throughout the year can be represented by the following diagrams:
In order for the second year to be able to reproduce at the original scale, all products of the two major categories must be exchanged to achieve value compensation and physical compensation.There are three major aspects of the exchange between the various parts of the two major social products.
First, intra-class exchanges.4000 c of Part Ⅰ, the physical form of this part of the product is the means of production.At the beginning of production at the beginning of the year, the Class I prepaid means of production with a value of 4000 c were all consumed by the end of the year and turned into real products for society.At the beginning of next year’s social production, compensation must be made with products within this category (that is, 4000 c ).The specific method is: a small part of the product in 4000 c directly enters the company’s reproduction process, and those consumed as compensation for production materials A constant capital element.The other part of the product is to be compensated through the exchange between the capitalists of the enterprises within the first category.
Second, intra-class exchange.In terms of value, 500 v and 500 m of Class Ⅱ are consumer funds used to pay workers’ wages and personal consumption as capitalists.They will all be used to purchase consumer materials.In physical form, they are consumer materials.Therefore, the products of category Ⅱ can be realized by the internal workers and capitalists of category Ⅱ purchasing various consumer goods of this category.
Third, the exchange between the two major categories.Through the above two major exchanges, there is still a surplus in Part Ⅰ, which is used to compensate the 1000 v of prepaid variable capital and 1000 m representing the surplus value to enter the personal consumption of capitalists and workers, but the physical form of existence is indeed the means of production It needs to be exchanged with Class Ⅱ, and the constant capital 2000 c used to compensate for the consumption of Class Ⅱ should be replaced by means of production, but their physical form is still consumption data, and they need to be exchanged with Class Ⅰ.As a result of the exchange between the two major categories, the product value of the first category (1000 v + 1000 m ) was realized, and workers and capitalists were provided with equal means of subsistence.In this way, the products of categoryⅠ (1000 v + 1000 m ) and 2000 c of category Ⅱ were realized.
The three major exchanges of the various components of the above two major categories can be represented by the following diagram.(①②③represent the exchange relationship of the above three aspects).
Figure1-1 The diagram of simple reproduction
It can be seen that in the case of simple reproduction, if the currency circulation as a medium is left aside, the realization of the total social product is carried out through the above three basic exchange relations.
The value compensation and in-kind compensation of the total social products are realized through the exchange between the two major categories and between the two major categories.In order to achieve the total compensation of the total social products, the various components of the total products must maintain a certain proportional relationship..This proportional relationship is the condition for the simple reproduction of total social capital.
First, the sum of variable capital and surplus value in Part Ⅰ should equal the constant capital in Part Ⅱ, that is, Ⅰ ( v + m ) = Ⅱ c .This realization condition reflects the internal connection between the two major categories as prerequisites and mutual constraints.This is the basic condition for simple reproduction of total social capital.
Second, the value of all products in class I should be equal to the sum of the constant capital of the two major classes, that is, Ⅰ ( c + v + m ) = Ⅰ c + Ⅱ c .This condition indicates that the production of means of production must be balanced with the demand for the means of production of the two major categories.This is an important condition for examining the normal progress of simple reproduction of total social capital from the perspective of the supply and demand of the means of production of the whole society.
Third, the value of all products in category Ⅱ must be equal to the sum of the variable capital and surplus value of the two major categories, that is, Ⅱ ( c + v + m ) = Ⅰ ( v + m ) + Ⅱ ( v + m ).
The first three implementation conditions above are basic, and the remaining two are derived from the first implementation condition.Each of them is from a different aspect, which reflects the two major types of production that must be followed in the simple reproduction process.Objective proportion.
Ⅱ Realization of expanded reproduction of social capital
Capital accumulation is the basis for expanding reproduction.In order to convert the accumulated surplus value into additional constant capital and additional variable capital for extended expansion and reproduction, two basic conditions must be met, that is, there must be additional means of production in the total social product.And the consumption data necessary to maintain the additional labor force.
1.Prerequisites for expanded reproduction: First of all, in addition to maintaining the means of production necessary for the simple reproduction of Groups Ⅰ and Ⅱ, all products produced in Group Ⅰ must have a balance.This balance is used to meet the needs of the two major sectors for the expansion of reproduction for additional constant capital.Therefore, the sum of variable capital and surplus value in Part Ⅰ must be greater than the value of constant capital in Part Ⅱ.This condition is expressed by the formula:
Secondly, in addition to satisfying the consumption needs of the capitalists of the two major categories and the original workers, there must also be a balance for all the products of the second category.This balance is used to meet the needs of additional workers for consumption data when expanding reproduction in the two major sectors.This condition is expressed by the formula:Ⅱ ( c + m - m / x )＞Ⅰ ( v + m / x )
According to the prerequisites for the expansion of reproduction mentioned above, the scheme for designing the expansion of reproduction is as follows:
In this scheme, Ⅰ (1000 v +1000 m )＞Ⅱ 1500 c , which meets the basic premise of expanding reproduction [Ⅰ ( v + m )＞Ⅱ c ], and has the possibility of expanding reproduction.
2.How the expansion and reproduction of social capital are carried out.
In order to expand reproduction, capitalists must accumulate after the first year of production.Accumulation first starts with the first category.It is assumed that the first category capitalists use half of the surplus value for accumulation and the other half for personal consumption by the capitalists.400 of surplus value is converted into additional constant capital (indicated by △ c ), and 100 is converted into additional variable capital (indicated by △ v ).In this way, the parts of the value of the product in category Ⅰ are regrouped according to their use as an expanded reproduction fund:
Here 4000 c is a compensation fund to compensate all the constant capital value consumed by Class Ⅰ, 400 △ c is the part of the accumulation fund used to add constant capital, and 1000 v is the consumption fund part of the original workers.100 △ v is the consumption fund part of the accumulation fund for adding variable capital or additional workers, and 500 m / x is the personal consumption fund of capitalists.Here Ⅰ (4000 c + 400 △ c ) can be realized and compensated through exchanges within this class.Part Ⅰ (1000 v + 100 △ v + 500 m / x ) still needs to be exchanged with Class Ⅱ.It represents a means of production with a total value of 1600, which is 100 more than the 1500 c of means of production originally consumed by Class Ⅱ.This 100 represents the production materials provided by the first category for the second category.The second category can be used for expanded reproduction.At the same time, the first category also requires the second category to provide more such consumption data for Increase the consumption of workers.In accordance with this, the second type of capital accumulation is as follows: first, 100 is taken from 750 m as additional constant capital, and then the organic composition of capital is 2 : 1 (assuming that the second type of accumulation part is the organic composition of capital remains the same), and then take 50 out of 750 m as additional variable capital.In this way, the parts of the product value of category Ⅱ are regrouped according to their use as an expanded reproduction fund:
Here 1500 c is to compensate the value of all the constant capital consumed by Part Ⅱ, 100 △ c is the part of the accumulation fund to add constant capital, and 50 △ v is the consumption of the accumulation fund to add variable capital or additional workers.In the fund section, 600 m / x is the personal consumption fund of capitalists.Among them, part Ⅱ (750 v + 50 △ v + 600 m / x ) can be compensated through internal exchange of this department; the product represented by part Ⅱ (1500 c + 100 △ c ) is consumer data, and it passes Exchange of production materials worth 1600.
The exchange relationship between the two major categories can be represented by the following diagram:
Figure1-2 The diagram of expanded reproduction
① and ② are the exchanges between the two major sectors of capitalist enterprises, and ③ are the exchanges between the two major sectors.After the exchange, all the social total products are compensated, and the expanded reproduction in the next year can be carried out.If the surplus value rate is still 100%, the result of the second year of production is:
The realization of products in the second year, as well as the expansion of reproduction and the realization of total social products in the years after the second year, can be deduced by analogy according to the above method based on the accumulation rate of Part Ⅰ.
From the analysis of capitalist expansion of reproduction, it can be seen that Ⅰ ( v + m )＞Ⅱ c , Ⅱ ( c + mm / x )＞Ⅰ ( v + m / x ), only shows that it is possible to expand reproduction, only When the proportion of the total product of the society is maintained in balance, the total product will be fully compensated for value and replaced in kind.Only by expanding reproduction can it become reality.
3.In order for the total social capital to expand and reproduce normally, these conditions should be met:
First, the sum of the original variable capital of Class Ⅰ plus additional variable capital, plus the surplus value of capital used by the capitalists for personal consumption, must be equal to the constant capital of Class Ⅱ plus the additional constant capital.which is
Second, the value of all products in category I must equal the original constant capital of the two major categories plus additional constant capital.which is
Third, the value of all products in category II must be equal to the original variable capital of the two major categories plus additional variable capital, plus the sum of the residual value of capitalist personal consumption.which is
Like simple reproduction, the first condition is basic and the other two conditions are derived.They all determine the smooth realization of the expansion and reproduction of social capital from different aspects.
Ⅰ Turning surplus value into profit
Surplus value was originally generated by variable capital and was an increase above variable capital.However, the capitalist sees it as an increase above the cost price, i.e., an increase in the value of the total cost of capital.Therefore, the surplus value produced in the production process appears as a product of the capital expended.In this way, the original formula for expressing the value of a commodity: W = c + ( v + m ) becomes W = ( c + v ) + m or k + m .The conversion of surplus value into profit masks the true source of surplus value.It seems that surplus value is not generated by variable capital, but by all prepaid capital.This conceals the connection between surplus value and the surplus labor of workers.The result of spontaneous proliferation.At the same time, the formula for the value of goods is further transformed into W = k + P (cost price plus profit).So the capitalist regards the cost price ( k ) as the intrinsic value of the commodity, and the surplus value (or profit) is expressed as the balance of the selling price of the commodity exceeding its intrinsic value.In this way, surplus value becomes a product in the process of commodity circulation.It seems that surplus value (profit) is generated in circulation, and its true source is further covered up.
Ⅱ The rate of surplus value is converted into the rate of profit
Since the capitalist regards the surplus value as the product of the prepaid total capital, he does not compare the surplus value with the variable capital when calculating the size of the company’s profit.The ratio of the total capital is called the profit rate.If P ′ is the profit rate, then P ′ = = (the capital G represents the total capital paid in advance).
Ⅲ Factors affecting profit margin
The level of surplus value: With the same amount of prepaid capital and the organic composition of capital, the higher the rate of surplus value, the higher the rate of profit; the rate of profit and the rate of surplus value change in proportion.
The level of organic composition of capital: The level of the organic composition of capital changes in the opposite direction compared to the change in the profit rate.An increase in the organic composition of capital will cause a decline in the profit rate.
Savings of constant capital: In the case where the amount of surplus value and the rate of surplus value have been determined, the constant capital is saved, the prepaid capital will be reduced, and the profit rate will be increased compared with the same amount of surplus value and a smaller amount of prepaid capital.
Capital turnover speed: When other conditions remain the same, the faster the capital turnover rate in a year, the more turnover of variable capital, the greater the amount of surplus value brought by the same amount of capital, and the higher the annual rate of surplus capital, The higher the annual profit rate (that is, the ratio of the surplus value of production to the total capital paid in one year).
Ⅰ Competition among sectors forms average profit margin
Inter-sector competition refers to competition among capitalists in various sectors in order to compete for more favorable investment venues.Under the capitalist system, because each production sector has a different rate of surplus value, a different organic composition of capital, and a different rate of capital turnover, it will inevitably result in different levels of profitability for each production sector.Now, we assume that the other conditions are the same in each sector, and that only the organic composition of capital is different to explain the difference in profitability.
Table 1-2 Average profit rate of each department
It can be seen from the Table 1-2 that the profit gained by the machinery industry sector is exactly the profit lost by the food industry sector.From all departments, the amount of profit has neither increased nor decreased, and the total profit is equal to the total surplus value.This shows that the process of forming average profit is a process in which capitalists in various sectors redistribution of surplus value through competition.
Therefore, the average profit rate is the profit rate calculated on the average of total social capital, that is, the ratio of total social surplus value to total social capital.The formula is:
Ⅱ The significance of average profit
Marx’s theory of average profit and production price is of great importance.First, this theory scientifically reveals that obtaining the same amount of profit with the same amount of capital is nothing but the redistribution of surplus value among capitalists in different sectors, thereby providing an important theoretical premise for analyzing the profit, interest, and rent of capitalist enterprises.Second, this theory also has very important practical significance.It reveals the opposition between the entire proletariat and the entire bourgeoisie.
Ⅰ Formation and function of commercial capital
Commercial capital, also known as merchant capital, is a functional capital that plays a role in the field of circulation.The function performed by commodity capital is to sell commodities, convert commodity capital into monetary capital, realize the value and surplus value contained in commodities, and finally complete the cycle of commercial capital.This relative independence of the commodity capital function contains the possibility of making it independent from the industrial capital movement.
Ⅱ The source and nature of commercial profits
Commercial profit rate, in the real economic life of a capitalist society, is essentially the average profit rate of functional capital.After commercial capital participates in the process of averaging the profit rate, new explanations must be made on the areas of average profit rate, average profit, and production price.
At this time, the average profit rate of industrial capital is transformed into the average profit rate of functional capital.which is:
The average profit of industrial capital is converted into the average profit rate of functional capital, and is divided into two parts: industrial profit and commercial profit.Industrial profit = total industrial capital × functional capital profit rate; commercial profit = total commercial capital × functional capital average profit rate, the original production price = cost price + average profit, that is, k + P , now the average profit is decomposed into industrial profit and Commercial profit, = P + h , so the production price becomes: k + P + h , that is, cost price + industrial profit + commercial profit.
Ⅰ Formation of loan capital
Borrowing capital comes from a large amount of idle currency capital generated by functional capital during the cycle and turnover process.Moreover, some capitalists also need to purchase goods and pay wages, or need to update equipment in advance, and often need to replenish monetary capital.So the capitalist who holds the idle money capital will lend it out for the capitalists who need the money capital urgently, and this part of the idle money capital becomes the loan capital.
Ⅱ Interest and corporate profits
Borrowing capitalists are conditional on lending money capital to capitalists.Functional capitalists use borrowing capital to operate commodity production or commodity circulation.After obtaining an average profit margin, they must pay a portion of it to the borrowing capitalist as compensation for using the loan.That is interest.Interest is a part of the surplus value that the functional capitalist gives to the borrowing capitalist because of the use of the borrowing capital.It is a special conversion form of surplus value.
Ⅲ Interest rate
The interest rate is the ratio of the amount of interest to borrowed capital over a period of time.Expressed by the formula: interest rate =
.There is a limit to the level of interest rates.
Its highest limit is less than the average profit margin.The lowest limit of the interest rate is greater than zero.Otherwise, the borrowing capitalist is unprofitable and would rather store the money without risking the loan, and the borrowing capital would not exist.Therefore, the interest rate always swings between the average profit rate and zero.The change in the interest rate depends on two factors: first, the level of average profitability; second, the supply and demand of borrowed capital.
Ⅰ The nature of capitalist rent
Capitalist rent is the excess of the average profit that land-leasing agricultural capitalists give to landowners to obtain land use rights.It reflects the relationship between landowners and agricultural capitalists exploiting agricultural workers.We are used to saying that rent is rent, which is somewhat different from real rent.Rent refers to the total amount of money paid by agricultural capitalists to landowners within a certain period.The real rent is the amount paid for simply using the land.In addition to rent in the true sense, rent also includes the following three aspects.First, rent includes depreciation and interest on fixed assets.Second, the rent sometimes includes part of the average profit of agricultural capitalists.Third, the rent sometimes includes the wages of some agricultural workers.
Ⅱ Differential rent
Formation of differential rent: Differential rent is obtained by renting superior land, and the part of the excess profit owned by the land owner.The monopoly of land management caused by the limited land has severely hindered the competition of agricultural investors for better production conditions, so that those agricultural investors who operate better land can maintain their production Advantage, so as to be able to obtain long-term stable excess profits.The surplus labor of agricultural workers is the source of differential rent.
The first form of differential rent: The first form of differential rent (differential rent I) refers to the rent converted from excess profits due to the fertility and geographical location of the land.It is the result of investing the same amount of capital in the same area and under different production conditions due to different labor productivity.Taking three parcels of land of the same area but different fertility as an example, the list illustrates the formation of differential rent Ⅰ.
Table 1-3 Differential Government Rent Ⅰ
The second form of differential rent (differential rent Ⅱ) is a continuous additional investment in the same land.Due to the different labor productivity of each investment, the excess profit generated is converted into rent.The formation of differential rent Ⅱ is shown in table 1-4.
Table 1-4 Differential Government Rent Ⅱ
The two forms of differential land rent are both closely related and show significant differences.The relationship between the two is shown in the following points: First, historically, differential rent Ⅰ is the basis and starting point of differential rent Ⅱ.Second, judging from the change in the amount of differential rent over a certain period of time, differential rent Ⅱ is also based on differential rent Ⅰ.The difference between the two types of land rent is: (1) Different investment methods.Differential rent Ⅰ is generated by investing in different land and expanding the area of cultivated land, which reflects the characteristics of extensive management.Differential rent Ⅱ is realized by continuous investment in the same land, which reflects the characteristics of intensive agricultural management.(2) There are different ways to convert excess profits into land rent.Differential rent Ⅰ was clearly stipulated to be owned by the landowner when the land owner and the agricultural capitalist signed the lease contract.Differential rent Ⅱ was owned by the agricultural capitalist during the term of the lease (this is the driving force for continuous additional investment by agricultural capitalists Where).When the lease expires and the lease is renewed, the differential rent II is transferred to the land owner in part or in whole by means of competition between the land owner and the capitalist.
Ⅲ Absolute rent
1.Formation of absolute rent.Due to the monopoly of private land rights, the absolute rent that must be paid to rent any land is called absolute rent.
Table 1-5 Absolute land rent
As can be seen from the table 1-5, because the organic composition of agricultural capital is lower than that of industry, 100 yuan is invested in agriculture, of which 40 yuan is the variable capital.When the residual value rate is 100%, the residual value is 40 yuan, and the value of the product It is 140 yuan; for the industrial sector, the same investment can get a residual value of 20 yuan and the product value is 120 yuan.According to the principle of equal profits for equal amounts of capital, both agricultural capitalists and industrial capitalists must obtain an average profit at an average profit of 20%.That is to obtain an average profit of 20 yuan each.In this way, the production price of industrial products and agricultural products is 120 yuan.However, the production price of agricultural products at 120 yuan is lower than the value of 140 yuan, and agricultural products are not sold at the production price, but at the value of the product.In this way, agricultural capitalists can obtain a balance of 20 yuan in addition to the average profit.This balance forms absolute rent.Therefore, absolute rent is the difference between the value of agricultural products and the price of production.
Ⅳ Land price is capitalized rent
The price of land is not a monetary expression of the value of the land, but a capitalized rent.That is the price of land is equivalent to such a sum of monetary capital, and the interest earned by depositing this monetary capital in a bank is equal to the land rent obtained after leasing this land.Therefore, the price of land is determined by two factors.One is the amount of land rent, i.e.the more the land rent, the higher the land price.Therefore, the price of superior land and closer to the market is higher than inferior land.Land far from the market.The second is the level of bank interest rates.The higher the interest rate, the lower the land price; conversely, the lower the interest rate, the higher the land price.It can be seen that the price of land and rent are directly proportional to change and inversely proportional to the interest rate of the bank.The formula for calculating land prices can be expressed as:
