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外交沟通行为是典型的互动性事件,信号传递也始终是信号发出者和信号接收者之间“互动交流”。这些社会互动所发生的情境背景会放大或扭曲信号的效力,同一种信号在某种情境下可以实现可信效果,但是在其他情境下则不行。战略互动意味着,一方行动前会考虑对方的反应,当下的决策会联系过去与未来的决策,这就会形成主观认知与客观事实的互动,以及主观认知与主观认知之间的相互塑造,甚至会出现“我知道你不知道我知道……”这样的循环解读困境。传统的信号可信度观念认为,可信度仅仅取决于信号的性质(昂贵或廉价),忽视了信号接收端的信号解读不确定问题,即信号只有接收者准确理解与处理时才能正确影响其行为或信念,否则就会产生与预期不同的效果。整体上,理性主义者的分析重点聚焦于信号伪装的激励和昂贵成本的可信度,而心理学家则重点关注信号接收者的信号误解与认知障碍。鉴于这两种方法都关注信息不对称条件下的危机升级,因而能够形成逻辑互补关系,可以整合微观经济学的演绎法与心理学的归纳法。 [56] 因而充分理解国际政治信号需要将多种分析路径结合起来,避免单一思维。

一方面,从内在因素上看,信号误解通常源于行动者的心理和认知偏见。在许多情况下,信号的误解是与接收者心理倾向相关,特定思维定式(愿望性思维)往往会强化虚假信念与偏见。现实危机沟通中的误解与感知扭曲,时常产生事与愿违的结果。对此,心理学分析强调对误解、情感与认知失衡的关注。罗伯特·杰维斯(Robert Jervis)一直认为信号传递和信号感知是一枚硬币的两面。为了更好理解信号逻辑就需要理解感知,因为信号效力根植于主观感知之中。 [57] 关于误解的心理学文献表明,认知偏差或误解会阻碍信号沟通。 [58]

另一方面,从外部因素考量,信号会被宏观系统结构、互动情境、第三方因素所干扰。不是所有的信号只涉及两方,国际关系的复杂性在于任何互动都有外部性特征,都能影响第三方或被第三方影响。而且互动本身也是一个不确定的动态连锁过程,信号传递者行动决策时会将信号接收方的可能反应考虑在内,而信号接收方的反应也会考量信号传递者的用意,这是彼此关联的动态决策过程,涉及时间先后顺序与相互意图推测等不确定因素,因而很容易产生误解。信号传递必须克服噪声干扰。尤其是在紧张的危机情境下国家间国际政治信号的传递面临很多不确定因素的阻碍。感知错误受到外界噪声波动影响,更受到信号接收者的心理偏见、主观预期与经验记忆的影响。在讨价还价的战略互动中,信息渠道不畅、噪声扭曲与第三方因素考量,都可以产生对信号的误判与误解。


[1] David A.Baldwin, Economic Statecraft ,Princeton:Princeton University Press,1985,p.106.

[2] 市场中信息不对称产生的原因有:(1)市场信息只能以分散的形式,而不可能以集中的形式出现,除非这些信息被人们以某种方式加以搜集、整理;(2)信息的传播和搜集是需要花费一定成本的,而且由于市场传播系统的局限性以及虚假信息的存在,都使得市场参与者不能获得所需要的全部真实的信息。A.Michael Spence,“Signaling in Retrospect and the Informational Structure of Markets”, American Economic Review ,Vol.92,No.1,2002,pp.434-459.

[3] J.Barkley Rosser,“A Nobel Prize for Asymmetric Information:The Economic Contributions of George Akerlof,Michael Spence and Joseph Stiglitz”, Review of Political Economy ,Vol.15,No.1,pp.227-251;Joseph E.Stiglitz and Andrew Weiss,“Alternative Approaches to Analyzing Markets with Asymmetric Information:Reply”, American Economic Review ,Vol.73,No.1,1983,pp.246-249.

[4] George A.Akerlof,“The Market for Lemons:Quality Uncertainty and the Market Mechanism”,in George A.Akerlof ed., Explorations in Pragmatic Economics Selected Papers of George A.Akerlof and Co-Authors ),Oxford and New York:Oxford University Press,2005,p.27.

[5] 乔治·阿克洛夫认为当市场中的一方(卖家)对产品质量拥有不对称优势时,他会倾向于用最高的价格出售质量不佳的产品,而作为博弈的另一方(消费者)则对产品的真实质量缺乏确切了解,但是他们会根据个人经验推测出大致的平均质量,并据此出价;由于双方拥有的信息不对称,信息优势方的出价与信息劣势方的出价之间会存在明显差距,这个差距导致市场失灵。参见George A.Akerlof,“The Market for ‘Lemons’:Quality Uncertainty and the Market Mechanism”, The Quarterly Journal of Economics ,Vol.84,No.3,1970,pp.488-500。

[6] Michael Spence,“Competition in Salaries,Credentials,and Signaling Prerequisites for Jobs”, Quarterly Journal of Economics ,Vol.90,No.1,1976,pp.51-74.

[7] “信息不对称”(asymmetic information),是指互动双方各自拥有对方所不知道的私人信息。或者说,某些博弈者拥有其他人不拥有的信息。市场中信息不对称产生的原因有:(1)市场信息只能以分散的形式,而不可能以集中的形式出现,除非这些信息被人们以某种方式加以搜集、整理;(2)信息的传播和搜集是需要花费一定成本的,而且由于市场传播系统的局限性以及虚假信息的存在,都使得市场参与者不能获得所需要的全部真实的信息。Michael Spence,“Signaling in Retrospect and the Informational Structure of Markets”, American Economic Review ,Vol.92,No.1,2002,pp.434-459.

[8] George Akerlof,“The Market for ‘Lemons’:Quality Uncertainty and the Market Mechanism”, Quarterly Journal of Economics ,Vol.84,No.3,1970,pp.488-500.

[9] Don McNicol, A Primer of Signal Detection Theory ,George Allen & Unwin Ltd,London,1972.

[10] 当市场中的一方(卖家)对产品质量拥有不对称优势时,他会倾向于用最高的价格出售质量不佳的产品,而作为博弈的另一方(消费者)则对产品的真实质量缺乏确切了解,但是他们会根据个人经验推测出大致的平均质量,并据此出价;由于双方拥有的信息不对称,信息优势方的出价与信息劣势方的出价之间会存在明显差距,这个差距导致市场失灵。参见George A.Akerlof,“The Market for ‘Lemons’:Quality Uncertainty and the Market Mechanism”, The Quarterly Journal of Economics ,Vol.84,No.3,1970,pp.488-500。

[11] 参见Barbara F.Walter, Committing to Peace,Committing to Peace The Successful Settlement of Civil Wars ,Princeton,NJ:Princeton University Press,2002;Barbara F.Walter, Reputation and Civil War Why Separatist Conflicts are So Violent ,New York:Cambridge University Press,2009。

[12] 信号模型构建中的一个重要的技术问题是限制失衡信念(out-of-equilibrium beliefs)。例如,信号接收者可能持有一种信念,会导致其对信号的解释不同于信号发射者的预期。鉴于本文的非技术性目的,我们不在此讨论这个问题,感兴趣的读者可参见David M.Kreps, A Course in Microeconomic Theory ,Princeton,NJ:Princeton University Press,1990;In-Koo Cho and David M.Kreps,“Signaling Games and Stable Equilibria”, The Quarterly Journal of Economics ,Vol.102,No.2,1987,pp.179-221。

[13] Yaacov Vertzberger, The World in Their Minds Information Processing,Cognition,and Perception in Foreign Policy ,Stanford,California:Stanford University Press,1990,p.17.

[14] Sebastian Rosato,“The Inscrutable Intentions of Great Powers”, International Security ,Vol.39,No.3,2014/2015,p.53.

[15] Ken Booth and Nicholas J.Wheeler, The Security Dilemma Fear,Cooperation,and Trust in World Politics ,New York:Palgrave Macmillan,2008,p.300;Robert Jervis, Perception and Misperception in International Politics ,Princeton,N.J.:Princeton University Press,1976,p.48.

[16] Peter Cramton,“Bargaining with Incomplete Information:An Infinite-Horizon Model with Two-Sided Uncertainty”, Review of Economic Studies ,Vol.51,No.4,1984,pp.79-593.

[17] 决策者可以通过间谍来了解国家的意图,然而这是不充分的,因为国家的真实意图只有极少数高层决策者才完全了解。此外,通过间谍收集的信息不能完全采信。参见Richard K.Betts, Enemies of Intelligence Knowledge and Power in American National Security ,New York:Columbia University Press,2009;Robert Jervis, Why Intelligence Fails Lessons from the Iranian Revolution and the Iraq War ,Ithaca:Cornell University Press,2010。

[18] Sebastian Rosato,“The Inscrutable Intentions of Great Powers”, International Security ,Vol.39,No.3,2014/2015,p.87.

[19] John J.Mearsheimer, The Tragedy of Great Power Politics ,New York:W.W.Norton,2001,p.31.

[20] Dale C.Copeland,“The Constructivist Challenge to Structural Realism:A Review Essay”, International Security ,Vol.25,No.2,2000,pp.188-189,199-203;Kenneth N.Waltz, Theory of International Politics ,New York:McGraw-Hill,1979,p.105,186.

[21] Shiping Tang, A Theory of Security Strategy for Our Time Defensive Realism ,New York:Palgrave Macmillan,2010,pp.151-152,154-155.

[22] Charles L.Glaser, Rational Theory of International Politics The Logic of Competition and Cooperation ,p.75;Robert Jervis,“Cooperation Under the Security Dilemma”, World Politics ,Vol.30,No.2,1978,p.201;Stephen Van Evera, Causes of War Power and the Roots of Conflict ,Ithaca:Cornell University Press,1999,p.171,118,191,255.

[23] Charles L.Glaser, Rational Theory of International Politics The Logic of Competition and Cooperation ,pp.65-67.

[24] Andrew Kydd,“Game Theory and the Spiral Model”, World Politics ,Vol.49,No.3,1997,p.373,395,395.

[25] Charles L.Glaser, Rational Theory of International Politics The Logic of Competition and Cooperation ,pp.69-70.

[26] 参见Michael E.Bratman, Faces of Intention Selected Essays on Intention and Agency ,New York:Cambridge University Press,1999。

[27] James Morrow,“The Strategic Setting of Choices:Signaling,Commitment,and Negotiation in International Politics”,in David A.Lake and Robert Powell eds., Strategic Choice and International Relations ,Princeton:Princeton University Press,1999,pp.77-114;Valerie Schwebach,“Sanctions as Signals:A Line in the Sand or a Lack of Resolve?” in Steve Chan and Alfred Cooper Drury eds., Sanctions as Economic Statecraft Theory and Practice ,New York:Palgrave,2000,pp.187-211.

[28] Peter Partell and Glenn Palmer,“Audience Costs and Interstate Crises:An Empirical Assessment of Fearon's Model of Dispute Outcomes”, International Studies Quarterly ,Vol.43,No.2,1999,pp.389-405;Alastair Smith,“International Crises and Domestic Politics”, American Political Science Review ,Vol.92,No.3,1998,pp.623-638.

[29] Charles Glaser, Rational Theory of International Politics The Logic of Competition and Cooperation ,p.154.

[30] Randall L.Schweller,“Neorealism's Status-Quo Bias:What Security Dilemma?” Security Studies ,Vol.5,No.3,1996,pp.90-121.

[31] Robert Jervis,“Cooperation Under the Security Dilemma”, World Politics ,Vol.30,No.2,1978,p.201;Stephen Van Evera, Causes of War Power and the Roots of Conflict ,Ithaca,N.Y.:Cornell University Press,1999,pp.171-191.

[32] Charles Glaser,“Will China's Rise Lead to War?Why Realism Does Not Mean Pessimism”, Foreign Affairs ,Vol.90,No.2,2011,pp.80-91.

[33] John Mearsheimer,“The False Promise of International Institutions”, International Security ,Vol.19,No.3,1994/1995,p.23.

[34] Sebastian Rosato,“The Inscrutable Intentions of Great Powers”, International Security ,Vol.39,No.3,2014/15,pp.48-88.

[35] Brandon Yoder and Kyle Haynes,“Article Review 45 on ‘The Inscrutable Intentions of Great Powers’”, ISS Forum ,November 27,2015,https://issforum.org/articlereviews/45-great-powers.

[36] Michael A.Spence,“Job Market Signaling”, Quarterly Journal of Economics ,Vol.87,No.3,1973,pp.355-374.

[37] James D.Morrow, Game Theory for Political Scientists ,Princeton:Princeton University Press,1994,p.222.

[38] James Fearon,“Domestic Political Audiences and the Escalation of International Disputes”, American Political Science Review ,Vol.88,No.3,1994,pp.578-579.

[39] James Fearon,“Signaling Foreign Policy Interests:Tying Hands versus Sinking Costs”, Journal of Conflict Resolution ,Vol.41,No.1,1997,pp.68-90;Branislav L.Slantchev,“Military Coercion in Interstate Crises”, American Political Science Review ,Vol.99,No.4,2005,pp.533-547.

[40] Kenneth A.Schultz,“Domestic Opposition and Signaling in International Crises”, American Political Science Association ,Vol.92,No.4,1998,pp.829-844.

[41] Anne E.Sartori,“The Might of the Pen:A Reputational Theory of Communication in International Disputes”, International Organization ,Vol.56,No.1,2002,pp.121-149;Shuhei Kurizaki,“Efficient Secrecy:Public versus Private Threats in Crisis Diplomacy”, American Political Science Review ,Vol.101,No.3,2007,p.543.

[42] Sebastian Rosato,“The Inscrutable Intentions of Great Powers”, International Security ,Vol.39,No.3,2014/15,p.84.

[43] Matthew Castle and Krzysztof J.Pelc,“The Causes and Effects of Leaks in International Negotiations”, International Studies Quarterly ,Vol.63,No.1,2019,pp.1147-1162.

[44] 观众成本理论是昂贵信号理论的分支,重点关注国内政治对国际政治信号的影响。具体请参见James Fearon,“Domestic Political Audiences and the Escalation of International Disputes”, American Political Science Review ,Vol.88,No.3,1994,pp.578-579;詹姆斯·费伦通过综合斯彭斯经济学信号理论与科斯交易成本理论,创造出观众成本理论。Michael Spence,“Job Market Signaling”, The Quarterly Journal of Economic s,Vol.87,No.3,1973,pp.355-374;大约在同一时间,以色列生物学家也独立提出了一个类似的想法,参见Amotz Zahavi,“Mate Selection:A Selection for a Handicap”, Journal of Theoretical Biology ,Vol.53,No.1,1975,pp.205-214.对此的相关争论参见Carl Bergstrom,“Dealing with Deception in Biology”,in Brooke Harrington ed., Deception From Ancient Empires to Internet Dating ,Stanford:Stanford University Press,2009,pp.24-25;William Searcy and Stephen Nowicki, The Evolution of Animal Behavior Reliability and Deception in Signaling Systems ,Princeton:Princeton University Press,2005,pp.6-13,207-224.在一定程度上迈克尔·斯彭斯与罗伯特·杰维斯都以托马斯·谢林的研究为基础,但是两人却走向了不同的信号分析路径,杰维斯开创了信号理论的认知心理学路径;斯彭斯则是理性主义分析路径的代表。杰维斯批评了昂贵信号理论的诸多问题,参见Robert Jervis, The Logic of Images in International Relations ,Princeton:Princeton University Press,1970;Robert Jervis,“Signaling and Perception:Drawing Inferences and Projecting Images”,in Kristen Monroe ed., Political Psychology ,Mahway,NJ:Lawrence Erlbaum,2002,pp.301-320。

[45] Kai Quek,“Are Costly Signals More Credible?Evidence of Sender-Receiver Gaps”, The Journal of Politics ,Vol.78,No.3,2016,pp.925-940.

[46] John Duffy and Nick Feltovich,“Words,Deeds and Lies:Strategic Behaviour in Games with Multiple Signals”, The Review of Economic Studies ,Vol.73,No.3,2006,pp.669-688.

[47] Brendan Nyhan and Jason Reifler,“When Corrections Fail:The Persistence of Political Misperceptions”, Political Behavior ,Vol.32,No.2,2010,p.307.

[48] Hugo Mercier and Dan Sperber,“Why Do Humans Reason?Arguments for an Argumentative Theory”, Behavioral and Brain Sciences ,Vol.34,No.2,2011,pp.57-74;Milton Lodge,Charles Taber and Christopher Weber,“First Steps Toward a Dual-Process Accessibility Model of Political Beliefs,Attitudes,and Behavior”,in David P.Redlawsk ed., Feeling Politics Emotion in Political Information Processing ,New York:Palgrave Macmillan,2006,pp.11-30.

[49] Guido Peeters and Janusz Czapinski,“Positive-Negative Asymmetry in Evaluations:The Distinction Between Affective and Informational Negativity Effects”, European Review of Social Psychology ,Vol.1,No.1,1990,pp.33-60.

[50] Paul Rozin and Edward B.Royzman,“Negativity Bias,Negativity Dominance,and Contagion”, Personality and Social Psychology Review ,Vol.5,No.4,2001,pp.296-320;Shelley E.Taylor,“Asymmetrical Effects of Positive and Negative Events:The Mobilization-Minimization Hypothesis”, Psychological Bulletin ,Vol.110,No.1,1991,pp.67-85.

[51] Roy F.Baumeister,Ellen Bratslavsky,Catrin Finkenauer and Kathleen D.Vohs,“Bad Is Stronger than Good”, Review of General Psychology ,Vol.5 No.4,2001,p.323.

[52] 参见Robert Jervis,Richard Ned Lebow and Janice Gross Stein, Psychology and Deterrence ,Baltimore:Johns Hopkins University Press,1985。

[53] Robert Jervis, Perception and Misperception in International Politics ,p.44.

[54] Robert Jervis, Perception and Misperception in International Politics ,pp.102-107.

[55] Robert Jervis, Perception and Misperception in International Politics ,pp.393-398.

[56] George W.Downs,“The Rational Deterrence Debate”, World Politics ,Vol.4,No.2,1989,pp.225-237;Jonathan Mercer,“Rationality and Psychology in International Politics”, International Organization ,Vol.59,No.1,2005,pp.77-106.

[57] Robert Jervis,“Signaling And Perception:Drawing Inferences and Projecting Images”,in Kristen Renwick Monroe ed., Political Psychology ,Mahwah,NJ:Earlbaum,2001,p.390.

[58] 尽管有些分析表明,某些情况下的误解可以改善信息信号质量,因为它有助于在发送方危机通信中真实地揭示私人价值。但是感知不确定仍然阻碍了接收方的真正判断。参见Louis Kriesberg, Constructive Conflicts From Escalation to Resolution ,Rowman & Littlefield Pub Inc.,2006。 2auC6T5svLyLr1HgUAMdnjk8oqNCLDAgUnEDa/T9LrJXC1+9aXsgCaVKaJz54IVa

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