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Undeniably, the increasing globalization is bringing profits for enterprises. However,it also poses unprecedented challenges, for they now have to serve consumers from different cultural backgrounds. Enterprises have developed high cultural awareness and adopted different approaches to reach their target consumers. Sometimes, they succeed;sometimes, they fail. This uncertainty emphasizes the necessity to take culture into consideration in advertising and marketing. In this section, the influence of culture on consumer behavior will be examined first.
Within a national culture, there exist different cultural segments, which are formed based on distinct and homogenous characteristics. They are called subcultures . The importance of examining subcultures lies in the fact that they direct advertisers and marketers to the right market segments. There are different types of subcultures:
Gender subcultures: the cultural divisions based on gender roles
Age subcultures: the cultural divisions based on age differences
Geographic and regional subcultures: the cultural divisions based on regional differences
Values are beliefs that exist consistently in a society, widely accepted and hard to change. Values guide people to act properly in a culture and assess the significance of different actions. Consumers, in possession of various values, behave differently. In this section, we will identify a number of core values that carry significant consumption connotations in the Chinese market. They are harmony, filial piety, achievement and success, face, and health.
A definition of culture seems a prerequisite before we get involved in the discussions about culture and its correlation with advertising and marketing. However, culture is such a pervasive and elusive term that it is not easy to define in an all-inclusive fashion. The policy here is to approach it metaphorically, seeing it as a society’s “personality” or the “lens” through which the people in a particular society think, feel and behave. Culture may refer to the tangible objects, such as the cars, clothing and artifacts a society produces. It may also mean intangible ideas and feelings, such as virtues,laws and preference. In terms of consumer behavior, we may see culture as the sum total of learned beliefs, values, and customs that serve to direct the consumer behavior of members of a particular society. (Schiffman, 366)
文化 可以视作指引某一特定社会成员的消费者行为的习得的信念、价值观和风俗的总和。
Beliefs refer to a feeling that something is good/bad, right/wrong, or valuable/valueless. It denotes a person’s understanding and judgment of the things concerned. It is usually presented by the mental or verbal statement “I believe...” and leads people to behave correspondingly. For example, with the introduction of the reform and opening up policy, many Chinese people are keen on imported goods, which are perceived to be loaded with the quality secured by advanced technology and the good taste of foreign high fashion.
Those beliefs that exist consistently in a society, widely accepted and hard to change, are values. Values help people to determine what actions are best to do or what way is best to live, or to assess the significance of different actions. For instance, some Chinese advertisers are actually inviting consumers to buy home-made products when they put forward the slogan “爱用国货” (love to use domestic products), which echoes the patriotism held by people. In another case, the increasing awareness of environmental protection effectively prompts people to choose the products that bear environmental concerns in their advertising claims.
价值观 帮助人民决定什么行为是最好的，最好的生活方式是什么，或者对不同行为的意义进行评价。
If beliefs and values are implicit and need much probing to appreciate,customs are quite overt because they are usually imbedded in people’s behavior. Customs include everyday behavior and routine behavior. These behaviors have to correspond to specific situations. That is, a situation determines whether certain behaviors are acceptable or not. For example, according to the Chinese table manners, adults are supposed to pick up their food with chopsticks, as opposed to the Indians who grab their food by hand.
Although beliefs and values are different from customs in the degree of visibility, they all denote people’s behaviors—beliefs and values as guides for behaviors, customs as usual and acceptable ways of behaving. More importantly, as the basic elements of culture, they show how the advertisers may get their target customers to buy their products if and when they can “play” culture well. Nowadays, the increasing exchanges between cultures make it difficult to study culture as it is becoming diffused. At the same time, it is becoming more important to study it because of its pervasive influence on consumer behavior. (Schiffman,2017: 367)
The influence of culture on behavior is so powerful and natural that people take it for granted. It seems that they do not need to find any justification for doing a certain thing,because they consider it simply the right thing to do. This reveals the fact that people are inextricably immersed in their own culture and it is difficult for an individual to perceive his/her own culture from the perspective of an outsider. It is only when he/she encounters people with different cultural beliefs and practices that an individual begins to appreciate the influence of his/her own culture. People will not understand what they eat, wear and how they greet each other are a cultural phenomenon until they meet people from other cultures who may eat, wear and greet quite differently. For example, while pork is widely served in the families of Chinese Han ethnicity, people of Hui ethnicity avoid pork products.For advertisers, sensitivity to cultural issues plays an important role in the effectiveness of their advertising and marketing efforts, because culture stipulates the underlying dimensions that determine consumer behavior.
Now, it is not difficult to grasp the importance of culture for those interested in consumer behavior. But why can culture assume such an important position? The answer naturally lies in the function of culture. To put it simply, culture is there to satisfy the needs of the people within a society. (Schiffman, 2017: 368) These needs may belong to different realms but can be roughly classified into two categories—personal needs and social needs.Culture, it is safe to say, provides reliable reference by which people behave properly and acceptably while striving to satisfy their needs in a particular situation. For instance,Chinese culture teaches us what to eat for the breakfast (preferably something providing various nutrients “早饭吃好”）, the lunch (preferably something offering sufficient calories“午饭吃饱”）, the dinner (preferably something easily digestible “晚饭吃少”）; how to eat (with chopsticks and/or spoons); and where to eat (at home or a restaurant, not on a street).Besides, people eat different foods for different traditional festivals—Mooncakes for Mid-Autumn Festival, Zongzi for Dragon Boat Festival, to name just a few. Culture also provides standards concerning suitable dress for specific situations (such as what to wear around the house, in a wedding, at a funeral, at a graduation ceremony, or in a business negotiation).However, the dress code keeps changing. According to a BBC report, the last decade has witnessed the trend of casualization of fashion, even in the business world. Trainers, for instance, which used to be forbidden in office, are now enjoying unprecedented popularity in the workplace.
Apart from satisfying personal needs, culture also shapes the framework within which people interact with other members in a society. Primary school pupils in China have long been conducting the practice of standing up to salute their teachers who have just stepped into the classroom. This practice is positively perceived as a way to establish a healthy and beneficial teacher-student relationship. Other examples may include how to give/receive a business phone call, how to treat one’s guests, and how to give a gift. Underlying the examples is the fact that culture is a crucial factor to clarify the identity of individuals and nurture their social connections with other members.
What needs to be pointed out is that culture is not static. Instead, it keeps evolving,leading to altered beliefs, values and customs. When they can satisfy the needs of people, they survive and flourish. In contrast, if they fail to yield the expected satisfaction,they will be modified or even replaced by those that are more responsive to the current needs and desires. For example, cosmetic surgery was once considered unacceptable in China because people perceived their body as naturally inherited from their parents. They should keep their body intact, not even leaving a scratch on their hair and skin. This was considered as the beginning of filial piety. “We inherit our body from our parents, including our hair and skin. Not hurting or damaging it is the beginning of filial piety.” （身体发肤受之父母, 不敢毁伤，孝之始也） Nowadays, however, the increasing identification with western culture and the prevalent aesthetic assimilation promote more and more females (and males) to undergo major or minor plastic surgeries so as to possess the standard protruding forehead, double-edged eyelids, high nose bridge and pointed chin. As is realized across the country, cosmetic medicine is really a big business. Cosmetic products and services are draining Chinese consumers’ purse. Therefore, while the influence of culture on consumer behavior is prominent, it should also be noted that consumers do not wait passively to be manipulated by culture. To some extent, they may actively opt for the beliefs, values and customs that positively and effectively respond to their needs.
By now, we have realized how culture may influence consumer behavior. For the sake of continuous growth in sales, marketers have to monitor the culture of their target market,because culture is the medium connecting products and their potential buyers or users.Only when they know how to use culture to communicate with consumers can they have their products or services purchased. Marketers can adopt two ways to communicate with consumers and thus swing their behavior.
On one hand, they share beliefs, values and customs with consumers. Cultural messages are included in the marketing claims, and then become internalized and popularized among consumers. When the marketing claims echo what has already been in consumers’ mind, consumers readily identify themselves with the products or services.A good example is the success of Feihe Milk Powder （飞鹤奶粉）, which has recently harvested a 60% sales increase from a stunning slogan “Feihe Milk Powder, 55 years specially developed for the Chinese, more suitable for the Chinese baby physique” （飞鹤奶粉，55年专为中国人研制，更适合中国宝宝体质）. How can such a slogan induce mass buying? The secret lies in the fact that the slogan is in line with a common sense among Chinese people, that is, the unique features of a local environment always give special characteristics to its inhabitants （一方水土养一方人） . It is well known among Chinse new mothers that after giving birth, they have to undertake the traditional practice “sitting the month” (postpartum confinement). For a whole month, they have to follow a set of rules such as staying indoors, keeping warm (they are even advised not to take a shower to avoid catching a cold), and taking a warm, light and nutritious diet (this is considered a good way to produce breast milk of high quality). Their western counterparts, however, can enjoy ice cream or go to work as usual, never troubled with postpartum diseases. To most consumers, this contrast between the postpartum practices justifies their identification with the marketing claim that Chinese babies need home-made infant formula. Naturally,consumers are detached from their previous loyalty to the foreign brands like Meadjohnson,Frisocare and Wyeth.
On the other hand, marketers teach beliefs, values and customs to consumers. This strategy is applied frequently to those products or services that involve specialty such as high-tech products and medical consultation. Producers or marketers are usually at a superior position, knowing more and better than consumers. Thus, they automatically have the advantage to influence consumers. For example, over the past serval years, a new form of after-school training item called “child programming” is presented to Chinese parents.For most of them, programming is a very specialized and unfamiliar subject. However, this does not hinder them from spending heavily on it because they are convinced, as they have been promised by the marketing claims, that child programming will ensure a bright future for their children. How did the marketers make it? In a way, parents’ superficial knowledge of child programming is taken advantage of. The marketing scheme of this kind usually begins by showing their target consumers the origin of child programming (in Britain and USA, two key developed countries) and its recent development in the west,and then cites some central or local policies concerning child programming to illustrate that children in China need to master this new skill. Let’s look at how one of the earliest investors explains his initiation “What led us into the trade is the disciplinary trend in the future of child programming ” （我们看重的是少儿编程未来的学科化趋势）. It is obvious that the startups are very assertive and they believe they have captured the trend of education.In contrast, consumers’ knowledge about it is quite limited. Marketers/Investors, in this case, are the source of information, distributing any message that parents need. To some extent, marketers have become the authority in this field. They will greatly influence consumer behavior. Besides, the prevalent anxiety about education on the part of Chinese parents transform this new trend to a national craze. Another typical example is in the field of telecommunication. Possibly, people can be impressed by what the wireless phone services often stress, such as the clarity of their connection, the nation-wide coverage of their service, or the free long-distance calling, as well as the flexibility of their pricing plans. However, it is not easy to say whether wireless phone subscribers genuinely desire these benefits from their wireless service providers or whether they have been taught by marketers to desire them. In a sense, although specific product advertising may reinforce the benefits that consumers want from the product; such advertising also teaches future generations of consumers to expect the same benefits from the product category.(Schiffman, 2017: 371)(5G)
Then, what is the mechanism that makes “teaching” happen? It is the unique way human beings approach the culture they are living in. While people get hold of innate characteristics like race, sex and skin color the moment they are born, they acquire culture by constant learning. At an early stage of life, they begin to learn beliefs, values and customs from parents, friends and teachers. There are various learning activities like playing toys with other children, going shopping with Mum, or attending a birthday party of a family member. These activities, according to anthropologists, can be categorized into three forms: formal learning in which adults or brothers and sisters teach a younger member to behave properly; informal learning in which a child learns by voluntarily imitating the behavior of others, like a parent, a classmate or even a virtual hero; technical learning in which teachers instruct the child about what should (not) be done, how it should be done, and why it should be done. (Schiffman, 2017: 370) Among them, a firm’s advertising and marketing messages can best strengthen informal cultural learning by offering their audience a series of behavior to imitate. For instance, when superstars endorse a product or service, they tend to cause mass buying on the part of thousands of fans who choose to trust and follow their idols. The announcement by Jay Zhou that “Love it? Buy it!” （爱玛电动车，爱就马上行动） makes the Aima electric bicycle once one of the top brands in the market. Jiangzhong Hedgehog Fungus Biscuits even aspires to make people cultivate a new habit by presenting the adverting claim that （猴姑饼干，猴头菇制成，养胃；上午吃一点，下午吃一点。）Through extensive repetition, the desired beliefs, values and customs will be imparted to a much larger population.
In order to acquire a common culture, the members in a society need to use a common language to communicate with each other. Marketers also need to communicate with their audience effectively with a language. However, the language they use is somewhat different from what we use in our daily life. They usually use symbols that help convey the desired product images or features. These symbols may be verbal, like the slogans or the print in newspapers or magazines. For instance, “Good Air-Conditioners are made by Gree（好空调，格力造）”; and “Ubiquitious communication facilitated by China Mobile （中国移动让沟通无处不在）.” Here, the positive images of Gree and China Mobile are clearly conveyed to consumers by the words. Symbols may also be nonverbal, like texture, color, layout and figures. In the following picture, the feathers and clouds symbolize the soft texture of the pillow. Combined with the moon, stars and the dark blue sky, the picture suggests that owning this pillow will grant you a sound sleep. Besides, the price and channels of distribution symbolically say a lot about products and services. A famous saying “Cheap things are no good. （便宜没好货）” , a kind of common sense in China, for instance, has refrained people from buying goods at a low price. Items at a street fair usually incur people’s disdain while those at luxury shops invite people’s admiration.
Apart from the verbal or nonverbal symbols,advertisers can use ritualized experiences to communicate with their audience so as to influence their behavior. A ritual is a type of symbolic activity consisting of a series of steps (multiple behaviors) occurring in a fixed sequence and repeated over time. (Schiffman, 2017: 373) Rituals make their presence at every important stage of our life and involve a lot of events, like graduation ceremonies,interviews, and funerals. What matters most to advertisers is that rituals tend to be replete with ritual artifacts (products) that are associated with or somehow enhance the performance of the ritual. (Schiffman, 2017: 373) For example, couplets, fire crackers,family feasts, red pockets, and new clothes are linked to Chinese New Year. What’s more,other events, like birthday parties, wedding anniversaries, signing ceremonies, propel the consumption of relevant products and services.
When it comes to examining culture, the same difficulty arises, since culture is such a sophisticated and ambiguous term. Depending on different theoretical preferences and standards, people may adopt different approaches to examine culture. A convenient way would be to take into account the common cultural characteristics shared by a particular population and position culture at different levels. First, when the common cultural characteristics are shared by a population from multiple nations, we examine culture at a supernational level. A typical example would be the case of Asian nations. While each Asian country displays features that distinguish it from its neighbors, there is no denying that Confucianism underlies the cultural temperament of many Asian nations like China,Korea, Japan, Singapore, Vietnam, and Mongolia. These nations embrace such core Confucian values as benevolence, righteousness and propriety. Advertisers who aim to influence Asian consumers need to attain a good understanding of Confucianism. Second,when the common cultural characteristics are shared by a population from a particular nation, we examine culture at a national level. We may, for instance, separately explore Chinese culture or American culture. Not surprisingly, a product that appeals to Chinese consumers must be loaded with the cultural expectations of Chinese people while the one that represents American spirit will win Americans’ heart. Third, if the common cultural characteristics belong to a population that shares one demographic feature like race,religion, age, sex, occupation and geographic location, we examine culture at a group level.Correspondingly, people may target their advertising and marketing appeals to White/Black consumers, Christian/Buddhist believers, young/old people, male/female buyers and southerners/northerners. These groups may coexist inside a larger cultural community but possess beliefs, values and customs that set them apart from other members of the same society. A full understanding of the various groups enables advertisers to better approach their target customers.
It is obvious that culture is responsible for the basic behavioral patterns of a society.However, there exist different segments within this national culture, and one can identify various groups, within the larger society, that possess unique cultural characteristics of their own. These segments are called subcultures. They have distinct beliefs, values,customs and traditions that distinguish them from the larger cultural mainstream. Although the subcultural members follow most of the dominant cultural values and behaviors of the society as a whole, they do manifest some features that are somewhat deviant from the mainstream behavioral patterns and unique to a specific population.
Among the many identifiable subcultures, only some are important in terms of advertising and marketing, because they orientate the advertisers and marketers to the right market segments. For example, cosmetics are usually popular among ladies,household appliances are important for housewives, and supplements draw the attention of the elderly people. Obviously, the product category tends to indicate which particular subculture needs to be explored and proper advertising and marketing campaigns will be launched accordingly. However, the relevance between product category and subcultures are not static but dynamic. For example, although cosmetics are conventionally believed to be appealing exclusively to women, these years have seen the increasing interest of men in them. Even the subcultures themselves are evolving. For instance, in the early days of new China, the average life expectancy of Chinese people was about 40 years, but nowadays, this number has increased to about 70. Thus, the definition of an old age has to be modified according to the social context.
In all cultures, males and females are naturally endowed with certain physical characteristics, which are the ground for the assignment of certain personal attributes and social roles. Males, with a stronger physique, are generally expected to be independent,aggressive, dominating and self-confident in almost all societies. They are usually the bread earners in families and leaders in organizations. Females, on the other hand, are supposed to be quiet, submissive, tender, compassionate, tactful and talkative. They have typically been brought up as homemakers, giving birth to children and taking care of the whole family. Nevertheless, individuals may display different levels of masculinity and femininity.Some biological males, for example, may be possessed of feminine traits and even choose to transform their sex to obtain a physical appearance typical of a female. The same is true of some biological females.
Advertisers and marketers should be gender-sensitive. Apparently, many products are typically associated with either males or females. For example, razors, lighters, cigarettes,ties and motorcycles are male products; lipsticks, jewelries, sanitary towels and miniskirts are products for females. However, gender typing is losing its grip and many products now are attracting consumers from the opposite sex. For example, the boyfriend style is receiving favor from some women; plastic surgeries are no longer foreign to men.
The male or female market segment is not as homogenous as we may believe. A typical example is the subtle segmentation of the female market. With the development of society, especially the awakening of feminine consciousness, advertising and marketing strategies cannot neglect female consumers. Currently, they are not only spenders, but also earners and participants or decision makers of household budget. Some researchers have identified four significant female market segments: the traditional housewife who prefers to stay at home, feels supported by family, and is generally content with her role; the trapped housewife who prefers to work outside but has to stay at home due to family duties and has mixed feelings about the current status and is concerned about lost opportunities; the trapped working woman who, married or single, prefers to stay at home but has to work for economic necessity, feels conflict about her role, and is proud of her financial contribution to the family; the career working woman who, married or single,prefers to work, derives satisfaction and meaning from employment rather than home and family, and feels pressed for time.
Every year, more and more products and services are targeted at women. In China, online shopping, paired with massive campaigns, seems to have set off a frenzy of consumption on the part of women. Some promise youth and beauty, like skin care products, cosmetics and slimming products. Some help to facilitate household maintenance, such as high-tech kitchen utensils and domestic services. Despite the similar consumption tendency, working women spend less time shopping than nonworking women. They economize their time by shopping less often and by being brand and store loyal. They are also likely to shop during evening hours and on weekends, as well as to buy through direct-mail catalogue. (Schiffman, 2017: 419) Recognition of the different consumer behavior within the female market usually indicates effectiveness and profitability.
It is not difficult to understand why age grouping is a critical factor in advertising and marketing. In all societies, young people display different physical and social characteristics from older members. They are more energetic, rebellious and eager to show their uniqueness.For example, they listen to different music and dress differently from their parents and grandparents. A few age cohorts have been identified as subcultures because they are associated with unique shared values and behaviors. An age cohort, or a generation, is a group of people who are born and brought up over a relatively short and continuous period of time,and thus share similar social, political, historical and economic experiences. In this section, we will explore the youth market and the mature market, respectively.
Youth is widely celebrated as the source of creation and revolution. Among those who can be labeled as young, there are usually tweens, teenagers and college students.The global youth market contains substantial profits. Tweens are those standing between childhood and adolescence, and they possess characteristics of both age groups. In public,they may act like cool teenagers but in private, they resume their childish characteristics.They are mostly interested in clothes, CDs, movies, and other products that make them feel right. To communicate with tweens is quite challenging because they are not children but not yet adults, or even real teenagers. Teenagers are transmitting from childhood to adulthood. This transmission is both exciting and confusing. It is exciting because one will soon assume the role of an adult. It is confusing due to the uncertainty of self. It is urgent that they find cues for the right way to look and behave. Peers and advertisements serve as the ready reference. Teenagers have to cope with problems like insecurity, parental authority and peer pressure. Their life is characterized by a series of conflicts:
●Autonomy versus belonging—Teens need to acquire independence, so they try to break away from their families. However, they need to attach themselves to a support structure, such as peers, to avoid being alone.
●Rebellion versus conformity—Teens need to rebel against social standards of appearance and behavior, yet they still need to fit in and be accepted by others. They prize“in-your-face” products that cultivate a rebellious image.
●Idealism versus pragmatism—Teens tend to view adults as hypocrites, whereas they see themselves as being sincere. They have to struggle to reconcile their view of how the world should be with the realities they perceive around them.
●Narcissism versus intimacy—Teens tend to be obsessed with their appearance and needs. However, they also feel the desire to connect with others on a meaningful level. (qtd from Solomon, 2018: 349)
Teenagers have developed their own consumption style. For example, most teenagers prefer to wear modern casual dresses, sports shoes of known brands, want to own autos that project a macho image, listen to pop music, and watch MTV. They spend family money and often influence family purchases. For many products, friends are the most significant influence. Nevertheless, parents are still an important factor affecting many buying decisions. Their brand and store preferences tend to be enduring. This market is particularly attractive to marketers because preferences and tastes formed during these years can significantly influence purchases throughout their life. To influence them as consumers,marketers need to use appropriate language, music, images, and media. College students capture the interest of advertisers and marketers because of their great buying power.It is reported that every year American students spend about $11 billion on snacks and beverages, $4 billion on personal care products, and $3 billion on CDs and tapes (Solomon,2018: 352). Different from teenagers, who somewhat depend on parents to make purchase decisions, college students have developed independent consumption styles because they are finally away from home. Researchers believe that during the college years, they are willing to try new products and the formation of desired brand loyalty is promising.However, advertisers and marketers have to understand that college students cannot be reached through conventional media such as newspapers. Nowadays, going online via smart phones is commonplace among college students. So online advertising is very effective.
Old age is traditionally associated with wrinkles, grey hair, clumsy motion, chronic diseases, loneliness, poverty, and dwindling purchasing desires. Nevertheless, this stereotype has to be altered. With the development of economy and medical science,populations around the world are enjoying longer life span and better physical conditions.An elderly person, currently, is one who is curious about what life means, interested in buying good-quality products and services and loyal to favorite brands for years. Some are engaged in the daily care of grandchildren or short-term hired labor, and some are devoted to volunteer work. Considering the large sum of discretionary income they own,they constitute a profitable market. They spend generously on exercise facilities, skin treatments, vacations, financial products, and even university courses to enhance their retirement life. Behind this thriving grey market is a belief that age is not a state of body but of mind. When it comes to longevity and quality of life, it is not one’s chronological age but his/her mental outlook that really matters. Thus, perceived age, or how old one feels about himself/herself, is a more appropriate standard to judge one’s overall state of being. Many marketers, aware of this, will focus on product benefits, rather than the claim that the product is suitable to a particular age. As a matter of fact, many elderly people opt not to buy the products targeted at their chronological age. Marketers who want to communicate successfully with mature consumers have to grasp their psyche. The following key words deserve special attention: autonomy (mature consumers want to lead active lives and to be self-sufficient); connectedness (mature consumers value the bonds they have with friends and family), and altruism (mature consumers want to give something back to the world). (Solomon, 2018: 357)
Populations distributed in different geographic and regional areas may display distinct and homogenous lifestyles, needs, tastes, and values, thus forming various geographic and regional subcultures. Take China as one example. China, with a vast territory, includes a wide range of climatic and geographic conditions that give rise to various natural environments and resources.Generations living in a particular area have developed unique local preferences in food and drink.For example, peppers are the key ingredient in Sichuan cuisine not because people there are addicted to the burning pain, but because peppers can help the human body to repel moisture that penetrates the mountainous province.
It is simply natural that many people have developed a sense of regional identification. For instance, in China, they may call themselves or others as southerners or northerners. These labels are usually helpful in portraying and understanding the person in question. For advertisers,geographic and regional subcultures usually indicate different consumption behaviors. In China,southerners prefer rice while northerners prefer wheaten food. Heating equipment sells well in the north but rarely arouses interest in the south, especially in the subtropic or tropic provinces like Guangdong, Guangxi and Hainan. Regional differences also indicate brand preferences.According to a report posted on Sohu, the most popular car brands in Guangdong are Dongfeng Nissan, Guangqi Honda, FAW Toyota, and Guangqi Toyota; those in Shandong are Shanghai Volkswagen, FAW Volkswagen, SAIC, and SGMW.
Geographic and regional subcultures are also associated with the consumption patterns of urban and rural areas. In China, a substantial gap has been in existence between urban and rural residents in terms of income, consumption level and consumption structure. Although the distance is decreasing, due to the overall economic development and the poverty alleviation policy oriented at impoverished areas, urban and rural residents prioritize different consumption items. According to a research by Li Nana and others, from 2006 to 2015, rural residents spend more on food and clothing than their urban counterpart whose expenditure on housing is currently increasing. They have also found that rural areas have witnessed a sluggish increase of the expenditure on household appliances, transportation, telecommunication, entertainment and education; but in rural areas, medicine and health care account for a larger proportion of the total expenditure than in urban areas. These observations offer cues for how advertisers and marketers may successfully reach their rural and urban audiences.
图3-1 2006—2015 年城镇各类消费支出份额
图3-2 2006—2015 年农村各类消费支出份额
In this section, we explore how Chinese culture is correlated with consumer behavior.We will identify a number of core values that both reflect and affect Chinese society and culture. However, this is not an easy task to accomplish. The reasons are as follows: First,China, with its huge population and 55 ethnicities, is a diverse country, within which people hold various and even conflicting beliefs, values and customs. Second, cultural values are evolving. Values that used to be dominant may be losing their popularity among people as time goes by. Finally, the introduction of cultural characteristics of other countries, to some extent, makes some Chinese values blurred and vague. For example, being reserved,traditionally perceived to be a Chinese value, is somewhat foreign to the post-90s youngsters.They have been encouraged to and also learned to express themselves explicitly. The values that will be examined are pervasive, enduring and consumption related. Some values are unique to Chinese culture and others are widely embraced in the world.
Harmony means “proper and balanced coordination between things”. (Zhang Lihua) This kind of coordination means the balanced relation between humankind and nature; between people and society; between members of different communities; and between mind and body. As a high social ideal, harmony has long been cherished in China. In the Spring and Autumn Period, Confucius proposed that the role of Li (rituals) was to maintain harmony among people （礼之用，和为贵）. Harmony, in this case, is the sublime goal people strive for. In daily life, it has been taken as a guiding principle for social interaction. Even conflicts may dissolve when the parties involved resort to the principle of harmony. In advertising and marketing, products and services that strengthen social bonds and accord with the spirit of harmony may attract a large audience.
Harmony originates from the peace of family. As the saying goes, a peaceful family will prosper （家和万事兴）. Chinese people believe a harmonious family is the key to a worthwhile life. In advertising, it is not unusual to see a happy family enjoying a certain product and strengthening the family bonds. Real estate companies, for example, usually project the ideal of a happy family into their marketing designs and thus render their audience to identify with them immediately. Besides, the growth of children, a mutual understanding of couples, keeping pets, company of parents, or the support for the elderly are often presented in advertising to create the desired security and warmth of family.Traditional festivals, especially Mid-Autumn Festival and Spring Festival, see how the ideal of a harmonious family influences consumer behavior—they travel thousands of miles to get together with their families; they buy Moon Cakes or make Chinese dumplings; they stick red couplets; they burn incense to honor their ancestors or the deceased.
A harmonious society is realized when love and peace within family is extended to other people. Mencius holds that the love for one’s parents can be extended to the love for the people, then to everything （亲亲而仁民，仁民而爱物）. This idea, in a way, advocates universal love on the part of all the social members. It is still having its impact on modern China. In advertising, brotherhood, a form of universal love, is a popular theme. In China,Chinese spirits is an important medium to build and maintain connections among males.A famous saying, “good friends, bottoms up （感情深，一口闷）”, is often heard when one is at the table and endeavors to attain the recognition of his counterpart. Sharing the joy of success and celebrating everlasting friendship often appear in the advertising claims.
Filial piety means being dutiful to parents. When they are alive, one should take care of them; when they pass away, one should mourn them according to local customs. This duty stems from the profound relationship that has been established during the early childhood of a person. As The Analects says, “a child should not leave his parents’ bosom until he is three years old （子生三年，然后免于父母之怀）. Parents give birth to children, bring them up, educate them, and lead them to the journey of life. Naturally, they should be rewarded for what they have done for their children. Mostly, the reward may take the form of financial, material and emotional support from children. Sometimes, obedience on the part of children is also required. According to Confucius, “the greatest love for people is the love for one’s parents （仁者，人也，亲亲为大）”. Until today, filial piety is conceived to be the most fundamental virtue of a person. In the Chinese market, there are plenty of products and services that help people to conduct filial piety.
Concerned with their parents’ well-being and health, consumers are willing to buy them products or services that are said to be conducive to their physical and mental state.Among the most popular items are clothing, accessories, home healthcare products,and supplements. Some people send their parents on a package tour and others reserve physical examinations for parents. Interestingly, China has got a special day to honor the elderly—Double Ninth Festival. Although not all the parents are old enough to be categorized as “elderly”, this festival offers a good opportunity for people to show their love and gratitude to parents. Around this day, a great number of consumers involve themselves in gift purchasing. Besides, Mothers’ Day and Fathers’ Day, though imported from the west, have also promoted consumption in the Chinese market. These two days have won the heart of Chinese consumers partly because they have been properly localized and partly because their connotations somewhat embody filial piety.
When parents pass away, grand funerals, especially those in rural places, are commonplace. This will propel massive consumption. It is believed that the deceased will live another life in the underworld and thus need all the necessities as the alive. This notion brings consumers to the funeral supply stores to buy the required items. In many places, buying and selling graveyards with favorable fengshui (or geomantic omen, an old belief that the location and structure of the grave might influence the fortune of the deceased and the family) has become a thriving business. What is more, funerals offer a scenario to manifest the social networks developed by the deceased. Apart from family members, neighbors, relatives, friends, colleagues, and classmates are also present. So a series of receptions will be held. The consumption of foods, drinks, vegetables and fruits are predictable. For some people, grand funerals represent their close connection to and reluctant departure from their deceased parents; for others, funerals provide the chance to declare to the public that they are conducting the conventional practice of loving parents. In either case, filial piety, a deep-rooted cultural value, has a great impact on consumption.
Different from Daoism, which is characterized by reclusion from the secular world,Confucianism advocates engagement in social activities. A motto by Mencius, “Preserve your dignity as a nobody; promote the social welfare as a somebody”（穷则独善其身，达则兼济天下）, appeals men of insight to involve themselves in the well-being and development of the whole society. The Confucian doctrine of cultivating a moral self, regulating a decent family, administrating a righteous state and making a peaceful world（修身、齐家、治国、平天下）, has been a standard against which the worth of a person is determined. Those who have played a role in the social dynamics are perceived to have realized their value. While devoting themselves in the social activities, they obtain the social recognition, and this is taken as the genuine achievement.
In old times, one’s position in the bureaucratic institution indicated the height of his achievement. The higher his official position was, the more successful he was. The official position may be inherited from one’s ancestors, or obtained because of one’s battlefield feats. Academic success may send one to the top of the social ladder, too. The imperial civil examination system has served as an efficient approach to select governmental officials. Since the Ming and Qing Dynasties, good command of Confucian classics was the prerequisite for one’s political success. Even today, it is still widely accepted that he who excels in study can follow an official career（学而优则仕）. The college entrance examination has helped thousands of people to ascend to higher classes or at least secure their current class. Pursuit for academic success has greatly impacted advertising styles and consumer behavior. Infant formulas never fail to remind their audience of the intelligence-stimulating substances they contain. The early education centers that are targeted at young children claim their courses will enhance the balanced development of the brain. After-school classes are providing rich resources to improve the examination scores of your children.Parents are never reluctant to pay the bills. Anyway, overwhelmed by the eagerness for academic achievement, the whole society seems to have entered a large-scale intelligence competition.
Since the introduction of the reform and open-up policy in 1978, China has developed into the second largest economy in the world. Over the years, the standard for one’s achievement has been shifted to economic success. Those that have gained substantial wealth are considered to be capable and respectable. This influences consumption a lot. People believe that, after years of hard work, they deserve high-quality products and services. The advertising claims, like “You owe it to yourself” or “You worked for it”, are quite seditious to consumers. Purchase of material or spiritual comfort is like a compensation for their previous hardships.
The term “face” possesses rich and subtle connotations, among which self-esteem and unwillingness to admit one’s own disadvantage cannot be neglected. In reality, it is a very subjective experience, because what denotes value and dignity for one person may be insignificant for others. It is notable that people care for their face only when confronted with acquaintances. Presence of strangers does not cause concerns for face. Chinese people are so obsessed with face that it has almost become a national pet phrase. What has given rise to this obsession? Many cultural researches have attributed it to collectivism,a deep-seated belief in China. High interdependence is universally admitted among social members, producing the interdependent self, as opposed to the independent self nurtured by individualism. Individuals, living in a complicated social network, depend on others to clarify their identity. They are much concerned about who they are in the eyes of other people. They strive to establish a positive image, acquire wide recognition and get a favorable position in communities. What they fear most is to be despised by fellows. So, they may disguise the negative aspects of their personality and life.
Face has greatly influenced consumption in the Chinese market. A typical example is conspicuous consumption, lavish or wasteful spending thought to enhance social prestige.Many consumers choose items with conspicuous famous brand logos because this allows them to display symbolically their economic and social power. For example, numerous consumers are crazy for handbags with eye-catching logos of Hermès, Louis Vuitton and Chanel. Some, with a limited budget, even opt for counterfeit products. What’s more,super-luxury wristwatches, cars, yachts and private jets have won the heart of the new rich in China. The real estate market has never failed to witness the thriving selling and buying of mansions. High-end artistic exhibitions are the dream destinations of those who expect to cultivate an elite taste. The sky-high price is not a burden but a threshold across which one will be identified as a member of the distinguished class. Chinese people not only gain face for themselves but they also grant face to other people by giving them luxurious gifts.Receiving luxurious gifts, as a matter of fact, indicates that the receiver has been admitted into the exclusive circle. Anyway, consumption of luxurious products is linked to the prominence Chinese people give to the value of face.
Chinese people have long been preoccupied with fitness and health. The First Emperor of Qin is said to have been obsessed with the idea of immortality. According to a legend,he once sent thousands of virgin boys and girls, led by the alchemist Xu Fu, to the islands of Penglai, Fangzhang and Yingzhou, to search for elixirs. Unfortunately, his dream had never been realized. Although modern Chinese people never hope for immortality, the eagerness for health and longevity has always been in existence. The advertising claims that attract a large audience are probably associated with fitness and health.
With the passage of time, the traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) has gradually developed into a standard set of principles and practices, that have been proved to be functional in both treatment and prevention. For thousands of years, Chinese people have been guided by TCM and survived numerous fatal diseases. Today, when it comes to health and longevity, TCM still influences consumer behaviors. First, edible and medicinable plants are introduced into Chinese diets, because Chinese people believe in homology of medicine and food. Housewives are familiar with the function and medicinal value of common ingredients in their kitchens. For example, Chinese dates nourish blood and mung beans reduce internal heat. In the Cantonese supermarket, it is not unusual to find shelves loaded with medicinal plants for making soup. Second, Chinese medicine physiotherapy centers are widely embedded in residential communities. The most common services offered are acupuncture, massage, moxibustion, and Guasha. Third, healthcare guides and lessons are in great demand. There are many professional publications on Chinese health preservation. Some newspapers and magazines offer healthcare tips to attract more readers. The registration for online and offline courses on Chinese health preservation is on the increase.
Recently, while enjoying the benefits of thriving economy, Chinese people have been brought under unprecedented pressure. Cases of death from overwork are often reported. Besides TCM, people begin to resort to modern medical or healthcare products and services. They buy household medical equipment like sphygmomanometers and glucometers; they buy organic food; they consider the content of calory and sugar while making their purchase decisions. Many people are taking supplements to cope with their subhealth. Others go to the fitness clubs or gyms regularly.