下载掌阅APP，畅读海量书库
立即打开
It’s natural to think consumers’ mindsets are affected by the people around them, like their family members, friends, colleagues, relatives, etc. But is it possible that consumers’choices are influenced by total strangers? As the Lead-in Case shows, the social media platform RED (also known as Xiaohongshu) facilitates many young users to post their vivid experiences and persuasive reviews of using certain products or services, becoming an important reference for youngsters aspiring to a trendy life in China. What’s worth noticing is that these users may not know each other personally. It is so popular because the contents are (to some extent) genuine and objective, interesting, aesthetically pleasing and more detailed than the information provided in mass media. Consumers can get a better sense of what’s new and in trend, which will become a strong driving force for them to try out the things being introduced.
In fact, we are immersed in all kinds of information in our daily lives, some of which is more influential than others. The sources of information and the ways in which it’s delivered largely determine its credibility. People are more likely to believe sources that are wellrespected and highly thought of. For instance, beauty tips are often shared among girls. If your best friend tells you how effective the eye cream she’s using is, including the product’s benefit (like moisturizing, reducing puffiness, smoothing fine lines, etc.), texture and scent,along with the before and after comparison, you’d feel a strong urge to give it a go. Aside from the rational considerations supported by information, some decisions are made due to the social relations consumers are in, which are to some extent quite subjective and/or hard to explain. In this chapter, we’ll take a close look at how consumers’ purchase decisions are influenced by external factors like different types of information and social relations.
Throughout this chapter, we’ll try to answer the following questions:
●What are the major types of information sources? How effective can each of them be?
●How do social relationships play a part in affecting consumers’ purchase decision-making? How does it work?
●How do family members make collective decisions as a whole? Alternatively, how does family life influences each member’s decision-making?
Living in the modern commercial world, we are bombarded with all kinds of information related to products and services: some are created intendedly by marketers to arouse and respond to consumers’ unmet needs and establish a positive image in their minds,some are delivered personally by the staff representing the company, some are evaluated and diffused by independent organizations to provide a relatively objective perspective,and some are created by other consumers resulting from their actual experience. Each type of information sources has its own level of credibility and capacity of interactive communication. The chart below displays the four types of information sources and how credible and interactive each type is.
Figure 2-1 Levels of interactive communication and credibility of information sources
As we can see from this chart, information delivered personally is highly interactive,which enables further probing and more information to be elicited; whereas mass mediadelivered information is usually a written piece with a complete structure, so its ability to facilitate interactive communication is relatively low. In terms of credibility, typically consumers perceive non-marketing sources are more reliable, allowing for negative (but objective) comments, while marketing sources seem less believable because they are designed to look good.
Imagine if you are going to buy a new car, you are intended to collect all kinds of information from the four types of channels mentioned above, like you will pay attention to some noticeable car ads of famous brands, even reading the small words in the ad; you will search for detailed reviews written by professionals on car-related websites or social media apps; you’ll consult your friends who drive the cars of the same brands you are interested in; you’ll also go to an authorized car dealer to talk to the salespeople in the hope of finding out some answers to your own questions as well as having a test drive. During this whole process, the friends’ comments might exert the most influence on you because they are the people you trust, and they are also car users who can share with you their own driving experience. The limitation is that sometimes you don’t happen to know someone who has used the product you want to buy. This is where professional reviews in independent media come along. It is considered to be the second most reliable source because the content is created by experienced industry insiders, while comparisons across several brands and/or models are possible. But the downside is that such posts might not facilitate two-way communications between the target consumers and the experts. That means if you have some particular questions, you might not be able to get desirable answers. When visiting a car dealer, a salesperson will be available to provide the information you seek for, tell you the sales promotion you might be interested in, rebut counterarguments, emphasize and explain important and/or complex information. Such interactive communication will help you better understand the brand and the product you aim at, assisting you to make an informed decision. But the negative aspect might be that you might be too engaged in this interpersonal situation that some disadvantages of the car might be neglected or too polite to turn the salesperson down. So to some extent, salespeople as a kind of marketing source delivered personally might not be highly credible.
参照群体 是指在现实生活或虚构想象中，被认为对个体对事物的评价、志向或行为有显著关联的个体或群体。
Among all the social relationships, reference groups have a predominant impact on consumer behavior. Human beings are social animals, which means we live our lives taking reference from other people who are similar to us. A reference group is any individual or group in reality or imagination perceived as having significant relevance upon a person’s evaluations, aspirations, or behavior. As you can see in this definition, a reference group might be a social group we belong to, like the class we are assigned to in college; or any desirable individuals or groups we aspire to identify with, like a popular Internet celebrity specializing in matching clothes. There are different kinds of groups that exert varying degrees of influences, with which the individual has direct or indirect connections. Primary groups, such as family and friends,have strong ties and frequent interaction with us, the communication of which is informal and face to face. Secondary groups, such as professionals, clubs,and religious groups, involve weaker ties and less frequent interaction, the communication of which is relatively discontinuous and more formal.
Group norms refer to the code of conducts that is established among group members and followed by each one of them. Each type of group has its own norms, some are explicitly stated, and some are implicit and conventional. Individuals will receive affirmation or recognition as rewards if their attitudes and behavior live up to the norms; if an individual deviates from or violates the norms, the group would correct such behavior in various ways,including sanctions and punishment. Group members conform to norms voluntarily or coercively, which means they can actively imitate other people’s behavior, or have to take actions under group pressure.
群体规范 是指群体所确立的，每个成员必须遵守的行为准则。
Consumers are influenced by reference groups in three ways:
(1) Informational influence : The individual seeks information about various brands from an association of professionals or independent groups of experts, or from those who work with the product as a profession, or brand-related knowledge and experience from those friends, neighbors, relatives or co-workers with reliable information about the brands.
(2) Utilitarian influence : The individual’s preferences for a particular brand have a lot to do with the desire to satisfy the expectations of the people with whom he or she has social interaction.
(3) Value-expressive influence: The individual perceives that the choice and/or purchase of a certain brand will enhance his or her own image; or it would project what the individual would like to be; or that the people choosing, purchasing or using a certain brand possess the characteristics that this individual would like to have, like being admired or respected by others.
The levels of influences that reference groups have on an individual differ in terms of brands and product categories. This matter is looked at in two dimensions: whether the product is consumed in private or in public; whether it’s necessary for our daily lives or whether it’s a luxury item. Generally speaking, the less necessary the product is, or the more frequently the product is used in public, or the more visible the usage of the product or brand is, the bigger the strength of reference group influence. An easy example to be cited is designer handbags that ladies love. A new handbag is not a must since most working women have more than five of different sizes to match different outfits and occasions. But once it’s being carried, other people (esp. other women) would take a look at the design and notice the brand. For ladies at middle class or above, it’s a symbol of wealth, status and personal taste. So when shopping for a new item, comments and preferences of the primary group would be taken into consideration.
Figure 2-2 Influences of reference group on diferent types of products
As the diagram above shows, reference groups impose strong power on the brands an individual chooses for the products used in public like cars and clothing. For daily necessities consumed in private settings like toilet paper, the influence of groups on the brands chosen is minimal. So it’s not surprising when you see in the homes of some consumers with a full set of premium beauty products on the dresser whereas their toilet paper is coarse and cheap.
品牌社区 由一群社会关系基于某品牌或产品的使用或兴趣的消费者组成。
Brand community consists of a group of consumers whose social relationships are based on usage of or interest in a brand or a product. It is a kind of reference group in which the members don’t personally know each other at first. What attracts them to form a community is the common usage of a particular brand or product, which usually belongs to the category of durable consumer goods like cars and cameras. Like the major brands Nikon and Canon in China, each has their own membership clubs with active members participating in the shooting activities. Since shooting with professional cameras takes skills and experience, consumers are more likely to engage in inquiries, discussions, works sharing and photography competitions on the forum. There are organized shooting tours in which members can travel to a scenic spot, listening to mini-lectures on how to use the cameras in a better way, receiving shooting tips from professionals, learning from each other, and enjoying the sense of creation and achievement. Very frequently,experienced amateur photographers would coach beginners how to shoot,meanwhile maximizing their enjoyment of the product, so that both sides can benefit from a network of satisfied members. The combination of online and offline activities can effectively increase product users’ emotional involvement and thus enhance brand loyalty.
Another typical example of brand community is car owners actively participating in the group driving tours organized at weekends or for long distance. Depending on product positioning, leisure tours and/or adventurous tours could be arranged for different types of cars, like a sedan, an SUV, or a four-wheel drive. Getting to know how to drive a car better is somehow like having a long-term relationship. One needs to know the features of the car and how to take advantage of them. Joining these tours enables car owners,especially new ones, to have a better understanding of how this car model works, enjoy natural scenery and the pleasure of driving during holidays,as well as build up connections with other consumers who have made similar purchase decisions as yours, who might most probably belong to the same social class as you. For the car manufacturer, such activities facilitate interactions among users and foster positive feelings for the brand, which might also vividly illustrate to potential customers what it would be like when owning and driving this car.
Spring outing organized voluntarily by Chery owners in 2021
Other than groups, consumers are easily influenced by opinion leaders as well. An opinion leader is a person who gives advice and information regarding a certain product or service, and can frequently influence others’ attitudes and behavior in informal communications. In a particular circle, opinion leaders are well-known as the “go-to person” for specific types of information. They actively prescreen, interpret, or provide product and brand-related information to the people around them and their followers.
意见领袖 是能够就某一特定的产品或服务提供建议与信息，并能在非正式的沟通传播中影响其他人的态度和行为的人。
Opinion leaders are very powerful in getting consumers’ attention, altering consumers’ attitudes and driving sales. Such social power can be broken down into the following five aspects:
Online opinion leaders
Livestreams of key opinion leaders or KOLs and celebrities are becoming increasingly popular in China, as consumers tend to attach credibility to their recommendations.Some 56 percent of Nielsen survey respondents said they would prefer to buy products recommended by KOLs or celebrities, while 34 percent were indifferent. The city of Hangzhou even offered Li Jiaqi, one of China’s top livestreamers, who is now a celebrity of sorts, residency status in June, 2020. That is recognition for the fact that he commands as many as 37.96 million fans on Taobao.
Word-of-mouth (WOM) is information about products and services created and delivered by individuals to others. It has been proven to be powerful and influential to consumers because it is perceived to have been created based on actual usage experiences of the WOM giver, who receives no material gain from the manufacturer and/or marketers by sharing such information.What’s more, unlike the purely favorable messages in marketing promotions,there are positive and negative WOM, which enhances the objectivity of the comments. In other words, the authenticity of such information and the neutral position of the WOM giver establish its credibility.
口碑 是个体产生并向他人传播、关于产品或服务的信息。
We are all too familiar with the casual conversations we have with our friends, colleagues and/or acquaintances, when we introduce or share our pleasant experience with some products and services, from the special colors of a type of eyeshadow, to the delicious foods in a newly-open restaurant.WOM is commonplace not only in real life settings, but also across all major online shopping platforms. It has become the habitual practice after we browse the product introduction on the page of Taobao or JD, we would click on the product review section to read other users’ comments and check out what it’ll actually be like to be using the product. There are even digital platforms based basically on WOM generated by users,like Yelp and tripadvisor, etc. One study found out the three dimensions that determine consumers’ engagement in digital WOM in online social networks:
(1) Connection strength —this means how intimate and how frequently the information seeker has with the source. The more contacts the two sides have, the stronger the connection strength, therefore higher engagement.
(2) Similarity in terms of demographics and lifestyles among group members. If the information seeker and the source share common characteristics like age, gender,educational background, income and social status, the former would be more involved in getting WOM from the latter. We can easily relate to the experience when shopping online for clothes, we’d focus on comments from the people who have similar body types with ours. In the case of baby care products like milk formula, diapers, and toys, similarities should be based on the age and gender of the baby, even though the decision maker is the mother.
(3) Source credibility —from the information seeker’s perspective, this means how reliable the source’s expertise is in the area of sought advice. For instance, if you ask for advice from a friend who’s a teacher about which education institute is more suitable for your kid, your friend’s opinions are considered to be quite trustable because you know he or she is an industry insider. On the other hand, this friend might not be able to give you valuable advice on which medicine is more effective in treating headaches.
Consumers are more likely to seek WOM in categories they are not familiar with. It works particularly well for objects that are of intangible nature, like services and intellectual properties. As we can see, tangible products enable us to associate with relevant experiences to have a general idea of its benefits and effects. However, it’s sometimes not easy for consumers to perceive the experiences of getting a service, like what it’s like to dine out in a new restaurant serving Mexican foods, the actual conditions of a familyrun inn in a travelling destination you’ve never been to, how professional and/or creative an advertising agency can be, etc. A very typical example is when parents are choosing a training center for their kids to learn a hobby like playing a musical instrument, ballet or painting, other parents’ comments are remarkably persuasive. The sales of educational institutes to a large extent rely on the positive feedback from parents. As for intellectual properties like books and movies, consumers would check out reviews before placing an order. For high-involvement purchases, accumulation of WOM for unfamiliar categories can manage consumers’ expectations and eliminate the potential risks without financial costs.
For marketers, WOM serves as the reinforcement of advertising in this era of social media popularization. The collaborative model can work this way: traditional ways of promotions like advertising can arouse brand awareness and establish authority; WOM provides vivid, authentic and more comprehensive product data as a complementary and useful information source. User-generated content on social media is a kind of e-WOM.Digital platforms like Dianping, Xiaohongshu and Douban facilitate users to post their experiences of trying out a fancy restaurant, using an imported product that has not been massively launched on the local market, sharing opinions on a newly released movie, etc.,with strong driving forces for sales. Chinese consumers have gotten used to resorting to these apps before making a purchase decision.
Due to its pervasive nature, WOM can be a double-edged sword for marketers when negative comments, esp. by KOLs, appear online. So it’s of fundamental importance for marketers to keep track of the sources of negative WOM and adopt positive attitudes when dealing with the situation. Instead of ignoring complains or derogatory feedbacks, companies that value consumers’ feelings, address the issues, and respond in a meaningful way will succeed in reducing negative WOM. In 2018, hidden camera footages emerged showing cleaners at more than a dozen five-star hotels in China using dirty towels to clean toilets, cups and showers, sparking outrage on social media. The blogger who posted the video, under the pseudonym Huazong, said he had spent more than 2,000 nights in 147 five-star hotels across several major Chinese cities. The clip has been shared for more than 80,000 times online and a topic section on Weibo dedicated to the video has been clicked on 99 million times. Major international hotel chains have been caught up in the scandal, including the Waldorf Astoria in Shanghai and the Park Hyatt in Beijing, which have both since apologised. China’s Ministry of Culture and Tourism has ordered investigations into the apparent breaches of hygiene standards. As we can see in this case, negative e-WOM can be even more impactful since people are more likely to articulate unpleasant experiences. What differentiates the images of businesses in the minds of consumers depends on how well the matter is handled. Once there is a major crisis, businesses should take immediate steps to solve the problem, restore confidence, and begin recovering their reputation.
家庭： 因为婚姻、血缘或收养关系而共同居住的一群个体。
户： 单独居住的个人；或者一群在同一处所共同生活的人，不管其是否有亲属关系。
Another type of social relationships that exerts potent influences on consumer behavior is family. It’s called “social” simply because it is a contrast to the concept of individual. Family can be defined as a group of individuals living together who are related by marriage, blood, or adoption. A broader term might be household , which refers to one person living by himself/herself,or a group of individuals living together in a common dwelling, whether they are related or not. The impact a family has on the individual is quite special because every one of us has inseparable ties with our family, which inevitably shapes the way we think and the way we behave, including how we purchase. On the other hand, a family can act as a unit to make collaborative decisions:different roles are taken on by different family members, like when purchasing childrenrelated products, the parents are the deciders, whereas the kids are the users.
As households transform from young singles to young married couples, then with children, expenditures rise progressively and remain high. At later stages of the family life cycle, spending plummets as couples are getting old, and children are growing up and living on their own. At different phases, consumers as family units have different buying preferences and consumption patterns. The implications for marketers are immense, so it is necessary to have a general understanding of the connections between features of each family life stage and corresponding purchase decision-making processes. For example,households going through a life cycle change tend to switch brand preferences and embrace marketing efforts.
All households go through different stages over time. In each stage, there are a number of problems that household decision makers must solve. How these problems are tackled relates closely to the selection and maintenance of lifestyle and, thus, to consumption.Each stage encompasses unique needs and wants along with financial conditions and experiences. Take young married couples for instance. At the early stage of a marriage without children, the major need of the couple is recreation. Some couples adopt an outdoorsy lifestyle, participating in lots of physical activities. Some others develop a more sophisticated urban lifestyle, like going to museums or cocktail parties. As one or more kids are born, their problems and needs have shifted to focuses on raising a child.
There are various types of household structures, the status of which has a lot to do with personal choices. This part is going to present the traditional family household structure.
This group consists of young male and female individuals, the subgroups of which are people living with one or both parents, and the ones living alone or with other individuals.This stage is also called the bachelor stage.
Young singles living with parents are mostly still students or have recently graduated from university and are starting to their working careers. People like this have relatively lower incomes, with the income level of an entry-level employee. But they also need to pay less for fixed expenses, since part of which is undertaken by the parents. Members of this group are active in their social lives, going to bars, movies, theatres and concerts. A significant portion of their discretionary income would also be spent on sports equipment,gym club membership clothes, and personal care items.
Young individuals living by themselves are relatively older, with higher income as well as more to spend on living expenses. With a less financial burden, they are recreation oriented, willing to pay for basic kitchen equipment, furniture, entertainment, vacations,and dating.
Marriage or cohabitation brings about a new stage of the family life cycle. Two young singles acting as a whole greatly altered their lifestyles in the process of developing a shared living pattern. Joint decisions and shared roles in household responsibilities are fresh experiences in many cases. Being present and future-oriented, young married couples need to consider seriously about major issues like savings, household furnishings,major appliances, and more comprehensive insurance coverage.
Resulting from dual incomes, households of married young couples are relatively affluent. They are more likely to spend more on tickets of live performances, expensive clothes, luxury vacations, restaurant meals, and alcoholic beverages, with higher affordability in nice cars, stylish apartments, and high-quality home appliances.
Full nest I : The term refers to the nuclear family consisting of a father, a mother and children under the age of six. The birth of the first kid to a family leads to many changes in lifestyle and consumption patterns. Needless to say, the category of baby care products is largely purchased, like baby clothes, diapers, furniture, food, and health care products. Due to the wife’s withdrawal from the labor force fully or partially, for several months to several years, the household income more or less reduces. In order to offset the decline in the disposable income, adult expenditures like adult apparel, alcoholic beverages and education are reduced. At the same time, choices of vacations, restaurants, and automobiles have to make changes to accommodate young children.
Full nest II : The children in families at this stage are older than six and are more independent. These families have specific needs in education, like lessons of all types(musical instruments, dance, calligraphy, gymnastics, and so on). Other purchases include toys, dental care services, and a wide variety of snack foods. Larger homes and cars are desired due to greater demands for space. Therefore, a considerable financial burden is created, which is somewhat relieved by the likelihood of the wife to pursue her career again as the children enter school. Time spent by both parents in the full-time career during the week, as well as transporting children to multiple events at weekends entail tremendous time pressure. As a result, products and services providing convenience and efficiency would be an appeal to these families and an opportunity for marketers.
Independence of the children signifies the family entering the empty nest stage. At the beginning of this stage, both adults typically have jobs, with relatively senior positions in the corporate hierarchy, so they are satisfied with their income and beginning to consider retirement. Dining out, expensive vacations, second homes, and luxury cars can be easily afforded. Home ownership is at its peak at this stage, along with other properties, which is the reason why this segment is a prime market for financial services.
A few years later, either or both of the couple retired, with a considerable income cut.People at this stage are present-oriented, enjoying travel and recreation. Medical appliances and medical-care products are purchased to assist their health, sleep and digestion.
At this stage, one of the spouses has passed away. The status quo of being older,single and generally retired spawns many particular needs for housing, socialization, travel,and entertainment. They are to some extent worried about security and the economy due to a drastic income reduction.
Dual-career families : In China, a large proportion of families consist of couples who both have jobs. In terms of consumer behavior, there are several important implications.To begin with, these families have higher discretionary spending. They tend to spend more than other types of families in childcare, dining out, and services in general. What’s more,switching between different roles of work and family doesn’t allow much time for cooking,housekeeping, and other domestic activities. As a result, dual-career families particularly value offerings that are efficient and convenient. Maybe this is why ready-to-cook meals take up larger and larger space in the refrigerators in supermarkets. At McDonald’s, more than 60 percent of sales come from drive-through customers. In these families, household responsibilities are taken on by many husbands. And in America, a small but growing number of men (as many as two million fathers) stay home to care for children.
Divorce and single-parenthood : The divorce rate in China is getting higher and higher. Even though policies like enforcing a “calm down” period of 30 days have been implemented, many divorces still occur every year. So it’s time to face it and find out its implications for lifestyle and consumption pattern. During the transition period of splitting up, consumers go through critical steps like getting rid of old and/or sentimental possessions, forming a new household, and developing new habits of consumption.Remedy shopping and treatment services contribute to forming a new personal identity and relieve a mental burden during and after the divorce. For instance, a recently divorced consumer might purchase a brand new vehicle, furniture, or clothing, get a new hairstyle,or begin going to singles’ events.
Divorce also affects the household structure. If the couple didn’t have any children,the newly divorced usually adopt the types of single people’s purchasing and consumption patterns previously discussed. The only difference is these new singles are perhaps a little bit more mature and have a larger amount of disposable income for accommodation,transportation and fashion. If, on the other hand, there are children involved, divorce would lead to single-parent families. The parent living with the kid(s) has to juggle between his or her career and child rearing, which means that convenience products—such as packaged foods—may become a daily life necessity. In comparison with married parents, there may be a tendency that single parents have lower incomes, spend less on most things,and tend to rent apartments rather than buying a permanent place. Moreover, divorced individuals with children form stepfamilies, which have unique consumption needs, such as duplicate supplies of clothing and other items that children need when spending time in two households.
Marketers should take into consideration household purchase situations and household decision roles altogether. Individuals are by default regarded as the decision maker and the consumer (user), but when it comes to families, there are additionally three types of possibilities: sometimes there is more than one decider, sometimes there is more than one consumer (user), and sometimes the decider and the consumer (user) are not the same person. The table below shows nine possible relations in family decision-making patterns:
Based on the analysis of household purchasing roles, the following questions need to be well thought out before formulating marketing strategies aiming at families:
(1) Is the product used by one person or by all family members?
(2) Will one person or the whole family go to buy it?
(3) Is the product expensive? Would the purchase of it has an impact on buying other things?
(4) Are there differences regarding the value of this item? If so, how can the conflicts be reduced?
(5) Can the product to be purchased be used by multiple members in the family? If so,is it necessary to modify or improve the product to satisfy more people’s needs?
(6) Which family members would have a direct influence on the purchasing decision of the product? What media or information should be used to convince them?
As we know, one particular family member can play different parts in the household purchase decision-making. According to different types of purchases, in different families,the role of decision maker can be completed by different members of the family. Hence, there are four major types of family decision-making: wife dominant, husband dominant, joint and separate . The first two types are self-explanatory, while joint decision-making means the couple would discuss and decide together, like buying an apartment or a family car; separate decision-making means the husband or the wife acts as an individual consumer and only considers his or her personal needs, like buying female hygiene products or laptops. What’s more, opinions of the kids should not be neglected, which have become increasingly influential as they grow older.
Family decision-making patterns don’t always remain the same. Changes in some other factors would also influence family purchasing roles. They are:
(1) Product feature : This factor includes the product’s price, importance and whether it could be used by other people. If the product’s price is so high that it affects other family expenditures, most family members would take part in the decision-making one way or the other. Some unimportant products like toilet paper would not involve the whole family to decide.
Whether the product is sharable also plays a part in the decision-making pattern. For spending on a family sedan or vacation destination, the possibility of collective decision making is quite high; but when the product is mostly used by a certain member, the decision is basically made by this individual.
(2) Social class : People belonging to different social classes would vary in terms of making decisions. Generally speaking, the style of high-end and low-end families (or established and grassroots families) tend to be independent, while that of middle class families tend to be equal or collective. But as the accumulation of wealth and elevation of the education level, such distinctions would gradually diminish or even disappear.
(3) Family life cycle : As it has been introduced earlier in this chapter, families at different stages have different decision-making patterns. Especially when the children participate more or have more say over the decisions, they have a further influence over the final decision.
(4) Family role allocation : There are particular roles assigned to members of the family,some of which undertake certain responsibilities. The more specific such a role is, the more likely this member makes independent decisions. For example, the wife has a special role in terms of feeding the baby, so she has more autonomy when purchasing infant clothes and foods. Likewise, the husband might be solely responsible for home maintenance, so he can choose whatever he wants when it comes to buying repairing tools.
(5) Personal characteristics : These features include relative power distribution, the level of involvement regarding different types of products, the level of education, etc. When one spouse has considerably more financial power than the other, he or she has bigger rights to make decisions. Alternatively, if one family member is more involved in the domain of certain products, there is a better chance for him or her to influence other members in the family.