Chapter 1
Communication Lines between East and West as Seen in Mutianzizhuan

Mutianzizhuan 穆天子傳（The travels of Mu 穆，the Son of Heaven）was excavated from the tomb of King Xiang 襄 of Wei 魏 [318-296 BCE ] during the period of the Warring States in Ji 汲 County，in the second year [281 CE ] of the Taikang 太康 reign period of the Western Jin 晉 dynasty. The original bamboo slips were scattered because the tomb had been broached by thieves. The substance of the slips was rewritten in official script，after they had been put in order，by Xun Xu 荀勗，He Qiao 和嶠，and others. Chapters 1 to 4 were already incomplete，and Chapter 5 was fragmentary. The five chapters record the travels of Mu 穆，the Son of Heaven，but the first four chapters and Chapter 5 appear not to have been compiled by the same people. There are no names on the bamboo slips，and the present title was given by the editors. In the“Shu Xi zhuan 束晳傳”of Jinshu 晉書（ch. 51）it is recorded that“ Mutianzizhuan 穆天子傳 is in five chapters”. The first mention of it indicates that“ Mutianzizhuan 穆天子傳 is complete in six chapters（a book excavated from the Tomb at Ji 汲 County）”is in the“Jingji zhi 經籍志2”of Suishu 隋書（ch. 33）. The sixth chapter，which was unearthed in the same period，describes affairs at the time that Lady Sheng 盛 died. This chapter was described as“one of nineteen composite books”when it was edited by the Jin 晉 scholars.

The first four chapters of Mutianzizhuan 穆天子傳 describe the western travel of Mu 穆，the Son of Heaven，and this is the main concern of this paper. It is generally considered that these four chapters were compiled by people from the Yan 燕 or Zhao 趙 states during the later period of the Warring States. The contents of the book as a whole must have been concerned with traditions under the name of Mu 穆，the Son of Heaven，but it is possible that it contains historical data from as early as the Western Zhou 周 dynasty. What it reveals of history is mainly the lines of communication between East and West that had come into existence no later than the seventh century BCE . The records on the route of western travel of Mu 穆，the Son of Heaven，in this book can be regarded as the earliest literature about the Silk Road in China.

A

Mutianzizhuan 穆天子傳，which includes abundant ancient traditions and source materials from mythology，has a high cognitive value. This paper is exclusively devoted to examining，in this book，the communication lines between East and West as described under the name of the western travel of Mu 穆，the Son of Heaven. The key to recognizing the route is ascertaining the location of the Kunlun 昆侖 Hills. In Mutianzizhuan 穆天子傳（ch. 1），it is recorded：

The Son of Heaven presented the bi 璧 to the Hezong 河宗 [tribe]. Bo Yao 柏夭，[the chief of] the Hezong 河宗 [tribe]，received it from him，turned to the west，and submerged the present in the River. After performing this he knelt before the Son of Heaven and touched his head to the earth many times. With a blessing he submerged the sacrificial animals，such as the ox，the horse，the pig，and the sheep. Then [the chief of] the Hezong 河宗 [tribe] addressed the Great Son of Heaven，saying：“The God of the River says‘Mu Man 穆滿，be thou forever on the throne’”！To the south the Emperor bowed many times. [The chief of] the Hezong 河宗 [tribe] continued：“The God of the River says‘Mu Man 穆滿，let me show thee the precious articles of Mount Chong 舂 and Mount Kunlun 昆侖，where there are four houses，from which flow seventy springs. Proceed，then，to the Kunlun 昆侖 Hills，and behold the precious articles of Mount Chong 舂. Bestow these treasures on thyself’”. The Son of Heaven received the decree，and to the south he bowed again.

This shows that the destination of western travel of Mu 穆，the Son of Heaven，was the Kunlun 昆侖 Hills，which indicates that if the location of the Kunlun 昆侖 Hills is ascertained，the general orientation of the travel of Mu 穆，the Son of Heaven，can be confirmed.

On the geographical situation of the Kunlun 昆侖 Hills as it appeared in pre-Qin 秦 records and books，opinions are quite divided. ¹ The bases of these beliefs are the systems of traditions that formed during the different periods. In my opinion，the Kunlun 昆侖 Hills seen in Mutianzizhuan 穆天子傳 must have been the present-day Altai Mountains，especially their eastern end.

Firstly, the communication lines between East and West that were the earliest to be opened must have been the so-called Steppe Silk Road that traverses Eurasia, because of the activities of nomadic tribes in the Eurasian steppe. The road started on the Mongolian plateau, went along the northern or southern foot of the Altai Mountains, passed through southern Siberia, and, going westward, arrived in the region of the Scythians on the northern shore of the Black Sea. The record of Herodotus’ History (IV, 17-32) shows that this road for trade by the Scythians already existed by the end of the seventh century BCE at the latest. ²

Secondly, many related descriptions in Herodotus’ History and the records in the Chinese ancient texts confirm each other.

For instance：Herodotus’ History （IV，13）refers to Arimaspians（one-eyed people），who lived to the east of the Issedones，the latter living near present-day Kumul. It happens that there are similar records in the“Hainei beijing 海內北經”chapter of Shanhaijing 山海經：“The state of Gui 鬼（ghost）is north of Erfu's 貳負 Corpse. These things have a human face and one eye. Some say Erfu 貳負 Spirit is to the east，and that these things have a human face and snake body”. ³

Also，Herodotus’ History （IV，13）records that the Argippaei（bald-headed people）lived in what is now the Altai Mountains. ⁴ The“Xiaoyaoyou 逍遙遊”chapter of Zhuangzi 莊子 also refers to the state of Qiongfa 窮髮（bald）in the far north.

Also，when it narrates the source of the Scythians，Herodotus’ History （IV，7）records that：“The country of those that neighbor Scythia to the northward and above them—beyond this，none can see or penetrate，they say，by reason of the showers of feathers；the earth and the air are full of feathers，and these shut off the view”. ⁵ The country where“the earth and the air are full of feathers”also occurs in Zhushu jinian 竹書紀年（Bamboo Annals）：“King Mu 穆（Mu 穆，the Son of Heaven）proceeded northward，crossing the shifting sands，1,000 li 里，and piles of feathers，1,000 li 里（cited by Guo Pu's 郭璞 commentary on the‘Dahuang beijing 大荒北經’chapter of Shanhaijing 山海經）”.

These traditions were spread to the interior of China along exactly the above-mentioned communication lines between East and West. The knowledge about the Northwest that the Chinese gained during the pre-Qin 秦 period laid particular stress on the northern part of the present-day Xinjiang 新疆 Uygur Autonomous Region，i.e.，from the steppe to the north of the Altai Mountains and the Dzungaria desert. This seems to show that the opening of the Steppe Road had preceded the establishment of the so-called Northern and Southern Routes in the Western Regions.

Thirdly，archaeological materials also provide evidence：From tombs（dating to the fifth or fourth century BCE ）at Pazyryk in Altai Province of Russia，fine silk fabrics，pongee with a phoenix pattern，lacquerware，and bronze mirrors with a“shan 山”（hill）pattern have been unearthed. ⁶ This shows that the earliest Chinese silk was indeed transported westwards to Europe along this route.

In Mutianzizhuan 穆天子傳 it is recorded that“the palaces of the Yellow Emperor”and a certain tomb（“the burial place of Fenglong 豐隆”）were in the Kunlun 昆侖 Hills，and there were marshes，spring waters，tigers，leopards，bears，wolves，wild horses，wild oxen，goats，boars，and a kind of great vulture that could seize sheep and deer in the mountains. However，there were traces of civilization left by ancient tribes only in the present-day Altai Mountains. One instance is the large stone tumulus dated seventh-fifth century BCE that is spread out near the Alaγ Nur in Qinghe 青河 County. The largest example of this type of tumulus has a circumference of 230 m，encircled by a ring of stones；the ring is 5 m in breadth，and its diameter is 210 m wide. This shows that at that time the level of civilization of the local residents was very high. In other words，the source materials of mythology for the Kunlun 昆侖 Hills indicate that there was an ancient civilization in the Altai Mountains. However，up to the present，no remains of an ancient civilization that can constitute the foundation of such a mythology have been found in the present-day Kunlun 昆侖 or Qilian 祁連 Mountains. ⁷

Fourthly，natural landscapes and human affairs and products recorded in Mutianzizhuan 穆天子傳 tally exactly with those in the Eurasian Steppe. ⁸

1. Of natural landscapes, e.g., in the third chapter, it is recorded:

The Son of Heaven proceeded eastward，crossing the desert on the south. On the day xinchou 辛丑 ， the Son of Heaven was thirsty，and water could not be obtained in the desert，so Gao Benrong 高奔戎，a member of the seven regiments，stabbed the left horse of his chariot in the neck and presented a drink of pure blood to the Son of Heaven.

“The desert”must have been located at the southern end of the Altai Mountains. The Son of Heaven had horse blood to quench his thirst, and a scene of desert life appears vividly before one's eyes.

2. Of human affairs and products, e.g., in the second chapter, it is recorded:

The Chiwu 赤烏 people presented to the Son of Heaven one thousand hu 斛 of wine，900 horses for food，3,000 cattle，and 100 carts full of loaded with millet and wheat.

The Caonu 曹奴 people entertained the Son of Heaven at a banquet on the bank of the Yang 洋 River，offering as presents 900 horses for food，700 cattle，and 100 carts full of millet and rice.

Wufu 無鳬，of the Juanhan 鄄韓 people，offered to him 100 good horses，300 draught cows，70 good dogs，200 camels，300 wild horses，2,000 cattle and sheep，and 300 carts full of millet and wheat.

The ability to contribute such an immense number of horses and cattle is evidence of the circumstances of nomadic tribes in the Eurasian Steppe.

B

Mutianzizhuan 穆天子傳 records some tribes that Mu 穆，the Son of Heaven，met on his journey to and fro. Some of these records and the Eastern or Western historical records may confirm each other.

1.1“The Quan-Rong 犬戎”（see also the fourth chapter）must have been“Quanfang 犬方”as seen in the oracle inscriptions. It also refers to“Quanfeng 犬封”as seen in the“Hainei beijing 海內北經”chapter of Shanhaijing 山海經，“Dog State”，as seen in the“Yiyin chaoxian 伊尹朝獻”entry attached to the“Wanghuijie 王會解”chapter of Yizhoushu 逸周書. The Quan-Rong 犬戎 and the Xianyun 玁狁 are noted in the written documents（e.g.，“Xiaoya 小雅”of Shijing 詩經）and the inscriptions on ancient bronze objects，the Xiongnu 匈奴 who appeared in later ages possibly came from the same origin. ⁹

1.2“Yanju 焉居”and the Asii，one of the four tribes of the Sakās as seen in the Western historical records，possibly came from the same origin.“Yanju 焉居”[ian-kia] can be regarded as a transcription of“Asii”.

1.3“Yuzhi 禺知”and“Yuezhi 月氏”as seen in the“Yiyin Chaoxian 伊尹朝獻”entry attached to the“Wanghuijie 王會解”chapter of Yizhoushu 逸周書，and the Gasiani，one of the four tribes of the Sakās，as seen in the Western historical records，possibly came from the same origin.“Yuzhi 禺知”[ngio-tie] can be regarded as a transcription of“Gasiani”. ¹⁰

1.4“Peng 䣙 people”is the same as“Wuyi 無夷”seen in the same chapter.“Peng 䣙 people”or“Wuyi 無夷”must have been“Fengyi 馮夷”. ¹¹ In Zhushu jinian 竹書紀年，cited by the“Luoshui 洛水”chapter of Shuijing 水經，it is recorded that“Luo Bo 洛伯（the Earl of the Luo 洛 River），Yongyu 用與，struggles with He Bo 河伯（the Earl of the Yellow River），Fengyi 馮夷. Yongyu 用與 is the God of the Luo 洛 River”. In the“Sanfen buyi 三坟補逸 A”chapter of Shaoshi shanfang bicong 少室山房筆叢 by Hu Yinglin 胡應麟，it is stated that“Both Luo Bo 洛伯 and He Bo 河伯 are the names of states. Both Yongyu 用與 and Fengyi 馮夷 are names of feudal princes”. Fengyi 馮夷 became a God of the River after he died. In the“Dazongshi 大宗師”chapter of Zhuangzi 莊子，it is said that“Fengyi 馮夷 gained it（the doctrine or Daoism）and then can swim in the Great River”. Cheng's 成 sub-commentary：“Great River refers to the Yellow River”.

1.5“Hezong 河宗 clan”was given this title in order that it could take charge of the memorial ceremony for the Earl of He 河（the River）. ¹² In the“Zhao shijia 趙世家”of Shiji 史記（ch. 43），it is recorded that it was“to conquer [the land] of the Hezong 河宗 [tribe]”. Shiji zhengyi 史記正義（ch. 43），says that“the Hezong 河宗 tribe can be located in Longmen 龍門，on the upper reaches of the Yellow River，i.e.，the lands of both Lan 嵐 and Sheng 勝 Provinces”.

(The above is in chapter 1.)

2.1“Shou ... □ people”，i.e.，“Shouyu 余 people”as seen in chapter 3.

2.2“Chiwu 赤烏 people”or“Chiwu 赤烏 clan”（seen also in the fourth chapter）and“Suoju 莎車”as seen in the“Yiyin chaoxian 伊尹朝獻”entry attached to the“Wanghuijie 王會解”chapter of Yizhoushu 逸周書 or Sacarauli，one of the four tribes of the Sakās，as seen in the Western historical records，possibly came from the same origin.“Chiwu 赤烏”[thjyak-a] can be regarded as a transcription of“Suoju 莎車”[sai-kia]，and both“Chiwu 赤烏”and“Suoju 莎車”can be regarded as transcriptions of Sacarauli. Those seen in the“Yiyin chaoxian 伊尹朝獻”entry were a branch in the east，and those seen in Mutianzizhuan 穆天子傳 were a part of the group that moved westwards.

2.3“Caonu 曹奴 people”may be“Dingling 丁零”as seen in the“Xiongnu liezhuan 匈奴列傳”of Shiji 史記（ch. 110），a tribe that was located to the north of the Xiongnu 匈奴.“Caonu 曹奴”[dzô-na] can be regarded as a transcription of“Dingling 丁零”[tyeng-lieng].

2.4“Rong ... 容□”，in Taiping yulan 太平御覽（ch. 618），is cited as“Rongcheng 容成”. Many scholars suggest that the original should be rectified as the base of Taiping yulan 太平御覽（ch. 618）. In my opinion，it would be better to retain the status quo ante owing to lack of essential evidence. ¹³

2.5“Jilü 剞閭 clan”and“Qianli 孅犁”as seen in the“Yiyin chaoxian 伊尹朝獻”entry attached to the“Wanghuijie 王會解”chapter of Yizhoushu 逸周書 possibly came from the same origin. The Qianli 孅犁 are the Xinli 薪犂 seen in the“Xiongnu liezhuan 匈奴列傳”of Shiji 史記（ch. 110），a tribe that was located to the north of the Xiongnu 匈奴.“Jilü 剞閭”[giai-lia]，“Qianli 孅犁”[siam-lyei]，and“Xinli 薪犂”[sien-lyei] can be different transcriptions of the same name. The Jilü 剞閭 must have been a branch that moved further west. Herodotus’ History （IV，13）refers to griffins that guard the gold on the Steppe Road. ¹⁴ The griffins may be a strained interpretation for“Jilü 剞閭”. It is also possible that the Jilü 剞閭 was a tribe that made griffins as a totem. ¹⁵

2.6“Juanhan 鄄韓 people”must have been the“Gekun 鬲昆”in the“Xiongnu liezhuan 匈奴列傳”of Shiji 史記（ch. 110），a tribe that was located to the north of the Xiongnu 匈奴.“Juanhan 鄄韓”[kiwən-hean] can be regarded as a transcription of“Gekun 鬲昆”[kek-kuən].

2.7“Xi Wangmu 西王母”（the Queen Mother of the West）：It is generally believed that the Queen Mother of the West as seen in Mutianzizhuan 穆天子傳 was a tribal chief. In my opinion，the prototype of the so-called Queen Mother of the West is Koubaba（Cybele，Κυβέλη），the Earth Mother（“Great Mother”）in Anatolia，who also was closely connected with Anat and others who were worshipped in the city-states in Syria and the littoral countries of the Mediterranean，such as Ugarit during fourteenth-twelfth centuries BCE . At first，Cybele was one of the gods. After the Hittite empire was destroyed about 1180 BCE ，she was accepted as a tribal goddess by the Phrygians，the new conquerors，at which time her position gained respect，her influence gradually extended to the whole of Mediterranean，and she then was accepted by the Hellenic and Roman world. ¹⁶ If this is correct，the Queen Mother of the West can be regarded as a mark that the Mediterranean culture left behind when it spread eastwards.

(The above is in chapter 2.)

3.1“Zhishi 智氏 people”：there is no convincing interpretation for this. ¹⁷

3.2“Ehu 閼胡 clan”appears as“Eshi 閼氏，Hushi 胡氏”（E 閼 clan，Hu 胡 clan）in the original；the first“shi 氏”was a redundancy. ¹⁸ “Ehu 閼胡”is just possibly“Wujie 烏揭”as seen in the“Xiongnu liezhuan 匈奴列傳”of Shiji 史記（ch. 110）“Ehu 閼胡”[at-ha] can be regarded as a transcription of“Wujie 烏揭”[a-kiat]. Also，the Wujie 烏揭 can be identified with the Argippaei as seen in Herodotus’ History （IV，23）. ¹⁹

3.3“Shouyu 余 people”，who were met by Mu 穆，the Son of Heaven on his way home：It is suggested that they must have been the“Shou ... □ people”as seen in the second chapter，who were met by Mu 穆，the Son of Heaven，on his westward journey，and who are also referred to simply as the“Zhuyu 珠余 clan”in the fourth chapter. ²⁰ In my opinion，it is possible that the“Shouyu 余 people”are simply the“Shou ... □ people”，and there is no harm in considering“Shouyu 余”[zjiu-jia] and“Zhuyu 珠余”[tjio-jia] to be different transcriptions of the same name，since“shou ”is an ancient form of“shou 壽”. ²¹ However，the three may not have lived in one place.

Also，“Zhuyu 珠余”and“Jingjue 精絕”[dzieng-dziuat]，“Shanshan 鄯善”[zjian-zjian]，which appear later in the“Xiyu zhuan 西域傳”of Hanshu 漢書（ch. 96），can be regarded as different transcriptions of the same name. Since the Jingjue 精絕 and Shanshan 鄯善 people and the Sacaraucae（Sakā Rawaka）may have had the same origin， ²² the Zhuyu 珠余 or Shouyu 余 people were possibly a branch of the Sacaraucae（Sakā Rawaka）. If this is true，they and the“Chiwu 赤烏 people”also had the same origin.

(The above is in the third chapter.)

4.1“Zhuoyou 濁繇 clan”must have been“Juyou 居繇”as seen in the“Hainei dongjing 海內東經”chapter of Shanhaijing 山海經. The latter should be corrected to“Shuyou 屬繇”on the basis of the“Xirong zhuan 西戎傳”chapter of Weilüe 魏略.“Zhuoyou 濁繇”[deok-jio] or“Shuyou 屬繇”[zjiuok-jio] can be regarded as a transcription of Sugda. The territory of the Sugda people lay between the Amu Darya and the Syr Darya；they were expert in business，and their traces could be found all over the world. The Zhuoyou 濁繇，as seen in Mutianzizhuan 穆天子傳，were a branch that moved eastward.

4.2“Gugan 骨飦 clan”must have been“Shusha 豎沙”，as seen in the“Hainei dongjing 海內東經”chapter of Shanhaijing 山海經. The latter should be corrected to“Jiansha 堅沙”on the basis of the“Xirong zhuan 西戎傳”chapter of Weilüe 魏略.“Gugan 骨飦”[kuət-kan] can be regarded as a variant transcription of“Jiansha 堅沙”[kyen-shea]. Both can be recorded as variant transcriptions of“Gasiani”. If this is true，“Gugan 骨飦”and“Yuzhi 禺知”，seen in chapter 1，had the same origin.

4.3“Zhongyong 重 clan”must have been“Daxia 大夏”，as seen in the chapter“Hainei dongjing 海內東經”chapter of Shanhaijing 山海經.“Zhongyong 重 clan”and“Daxia 大夏”，seen in the“Wanghuijie 王會解”chapter of Yizhoushu 逸周書 ²³ and the“Yiyin chaoxian 伊尹朝獻”entry attached to this chapter，or Tochari，one of the four tribes of the Sakās，possibly came from the same origin. There is no harm in considering that“Zhongyong 重 ”[diong-iong] and“Daxia 大夏”[dat-hea] are different transcriptions of the same name. ²⁴

Also，it is generally the case that“the Western Xia 夏”，seen in the same chapter，refers to“Daxia 大夏”. In the“Guyue 古樂”chapter of Lüshi chunqiu 呂氏春秋，it is recorded：“Formerly，the Yellow Emperor ordered Ling Lun 伶倫 to make a pipe with standard pitches. Ling Lun 伶倫 went westwards from Daxia 大夏 to the northern foot of Mount Ruanyu 阮隃”. It is generally accepted that“Ruanyu 阮隃”is just“Kunlun 昆侖”，because it appears as“Kunlun 崑崙”in the parallel passage in the chapter“Xiuwen 修文”chapter of Shuoyuan 說苑 and in the“Shengyin 聲音”chapter of Fengsutongyi 風俗通義. Since both“Western Xia 夏”and“Daxia 大夏”were located to the east of the Kunlun 昆侖 Hills，and were the only way to go there，it is appropriate to consider that“Western Xia 夏”can be identified with“Daxia 大夏”. If this is true，“Western Xia 夏”，whose distance westward to the Kunlun 昆侖 Hills（the Altai Mountains）was 2,200 li 里，must have been located in the Hexi 河西 region. The reason it is titled“Western Xia 夏”is possibly that the former lands of the Daxia 大夏 were farther east.

Since the“Western Xia 夏”can be identified with the“Daxia 大夏”，they and the Zhongyong 重 clan in that chapter had the same origin，but they did not live in the same place.

4.4“Jusou 巨蒐 clan”is recorded as“Qusou 渠搜”in the“Yugong 禹貢”chapter of Shangshu 尚書，one of the Western Rong 戎 tribes. In my opinion，the Jusou 巨蒐 and the Asii，one of the four tribes of the Sakā seen in the Western historical records，had the same origin.“Jusou 巨蒐”[gia-shiu] and“Asii”can be taken to be different transcriptions of the same name. ²⁵

4.5 Tangsou 溲：There is no research available on this.

(The above is in the fourth chapter.)

The following are additional remarks:

Firstly，of the tribes that were met by Mu 穆，the Son of Heaven，on his westward journey，the most noteworthy is the Caonu 曹奴 people（the Dingling 丁零），the Jilü 剞閭（griffins），and the Juanhan 鄄韓（the Gekun 鬲昆）. Of the tribes that were met by Mu 穆，the Son of Heaven，on his homeward journey，the most noteworthy is the Ehu 閼胡（the Wujie 烏揭）.

According to the“Xiongnu liezhuan 匈奴列傳”of Shiji 史記（ch. 110），when the Xiongnu 匈奴 arose abruptly，Chanyu 單于 Modu 冒頓“conquered the tribes of Hunyu 渾庾，Qushe 屈射，Dingling 丁零，Gekun 鬲昆，and Xinli 薪犂 to the north”. And according to the“Xiongnu zhuan 匈奴傳 B”of Hanshu 漢書（ch. 94B），we know that during the reign period of Emperor Yuan 元 of Han 漢，Chanyu 單于 Zhizhi 郅支 of the Xiongnu 匈奴 betrayed the Han 漢 dynasty and turned west，“He attacked the Wujie 烏揭 in the north，the Wujie 烏揭 surrendered，then sent out their troops to destroy Jiankun 堅昆 in the west and to compel the Dingling 丁令 to surrender in the north，thereby annexing all three tribes”. From this，we know that the Jiankun 堅昆 were located to the west of the Wujie 烏揭，and the Dingling 丁令 were located to the north of the Wujie 烏揭. At that time，“Located 7,000 li 里 from the Chanyu's 單于 court to the east and 5,000 li 里 from Jushi 車師 in the south，Jiankun 堅昆 was where Zhizhi 郅支 stayed and established his capital”. The reference to the statement that Chanyu 單于 Modu 冒頓“conquered the tribes of Hunyu 渾庾，Qushe 屈射，Dingling 丁零，Gekun 鬲昆，and Xinli 薪犂 to the north”，in fact，means“conquered ... to the northwest”. It is generally suggested that metropolitan territory of the Dingling 丁零 was located around Lake Baikal，and Gekun 鬲昆（Jiankun 堅昆）was located in the valley of the Yenisey River. The geographical situation of the Xinli 薪犁 is not clearly known，but it was also located at the northern foot of the Altai Mountains. As to the Wujie 烏揭，according to more reliable research，they lived at the southern foot of the Altai Mountains. ²⁶ They had yet to ascend the historical stage at the time described by Mutianzizhuan 穆天子傳.

That Mu 穆，the Son of Heaven，met the Jilü 剞閭 clan，the Caonu 曹奴 people，and the Juanhan 鄄韓 clan seems to show that his westward journey was along the northern foot of the Altai Mountains，and the location of the Wujie's 烏揭 residence suggests strongly that the homeward journey of Mu 穆，the Son of Heaven，was along the southern foot of the Altai Mountains.

Secondly，in the Chinese historical records，the Queen Mother of the West is usually assigned to the most western location. For example，the Ruo 弱 River and the Queen Mother of the West are in the state of Tiaozhi 條枝 in the“Dayuan liezhuan 大宛列傳”of Shiji 史記（ch. 123）. However，they are to the west of the state of Da Qin 大秦 in the“Xiyu zhuan 西域傳”of Houhanshu 後漢書（ch. 88），and the“Xirong zhuan 西戎傳”chapter of Weilüe 魏略. This is because the Chinese were aware of the outer world up to the state of Tiaozhi 條枝 on the west at the time described by the former，and the furthest western state was Da Qin 大秦 by the time described by the latter. Thus it can be seen that it is certainly not accidental that the Queen Mother of the West who met Mu 穆，the Son of Heaven，was at the terminal point of his westward travel. In Mutianzizhuan 穆天子傳，like Shiji 史記 and others，the Queen Mother of the West was put in the furthest western place as it was understood at that time.

According to Mutianzizhuan 穆天子傳（ch. 3），after Mu 穆，the Son of Heaven，had met the Queen Mother of the West，he“then rode on Mount Yan 弇 and engraved a record of this visit on the rocks. He planted a sophora tree as a memorial and named the place the Mount of the Queen Mother of the West”. The reference he“rode on Mount Yan 弇”is cited as he“rode on Mount Yanzi 崦嵫”by Taiping yulan 太平御覽（ch. 672）. In my opinion，in the“Xishanjing 西山經”chapter of Shanhaijing 山海經 it is recorded that“360 li 里 southwest is Mount Yanzi 崦嵫”. Guo's 郭 commentary says：“A mountain where the sun sets，see Lisao 離騷”. The Lisao 離騷 says“To Yanzi 崦嵫 slowly go”. Wang Yi's 王逸 commentary says：“Yanzi 崦嵫 is a mountain where the sun sets”. Thus it can be seen that Mount Yan 弇 is Mount Yanzi 崦嵫. In the mind of Mutianzizhuan 's 穆天子傳 author，to ride on Mount Yan 弇 or Yanzi 崦嵫 after he had met the Queen Mother of the West is the proper meaning implied. ²⁷

The location of the residence of the Queen Mother of the West as seen in Mutianzizhuan 穆天子傳 cannot be known for sure. We know only that there was a vast plain where“big birds scattered their feathers”. We associate this with the place where the air is full of feathers，referred to by Herodotus when he describes the Steppe Road. Since the location of Herodotus’place where the air is full of feathers was undoubtedly on the communication lines between East and West to the Altai Mountains，the Mount Kunlun 昆侖 that Mu 穆，the Son of Heaven，passed to meet the Queen Mother of the West must have been in the Altai Mountains as well.

Thirdly，since“Western Xia 夏”is identified with“Daxia 大夏”，“Gugan 骨飦”with“Shusha 豎沙”，“Zhuoyou 濁繇”with“Juyou 居繇”，“Yuzhi 禺知”with“Yuezhi 月支”，the record that“there are the state of Daxia 大夏，the state of Shusha 豎沙，the state of Juyou 居繇，and the state of Yuezhi 月支 outside the shifting sands” ²⁸ in the“Hainei dongjing 海內東經”chapter of Shanhaijing 山海經 seems to be confirmed by the statement in Mutianzizhuan 穆天子傳. But the above research shows at most that the data of Shanhaijing 山海經，and Mutianzizhuan 穆天子傳 had the same source，it cannot show that the editors of both books had the same understanding of these source. In other words，we should not seek the locations of the above four tribes on the basis of the description of Shanhaijing 山海經；in fact，the contrary is also true. ²⁹

According to the same reasoning， Mutianzizhuan 穆天子傳 refers to the Red River，the Yang 洋 River，and the Black River，and so on，all related to the Kunlun 昆侖 Hills. Similar records also appear in the“Xishanjing 西山經”chapter of Shanhaijing 山海經.

400 li 里 southwest is Kunlun 昆侖 Hills. This is the earthly capital of the Sovereign，where the spirit Luwu 陸吾 rules. ... The River flows south from here，then east and to Wuda 無達. The Red River flows southeast from here，to the Fantian 氾天 River. The Yang 洋 River flows southwest from here，to the Choutu 醜塗 River. The Black River flows west from here，to Dawu 大杅. Strange birds and animals abound here.

In addition to the colored rivers，there is Mount Qunyu 群玉（“crowded with jade mount”），which also appears in the“Hainei dongjing 海內東經”chapter of Shanhaijing 山海經：

The White Jade Mount in the Western Hu 胡 is to the east of Daxia 大夏. Cangwu 蒼梧 is southwest of the White Jade Mount. All these are west of shifting sands and southeast of the Kunlun 昆侖 Hills. the Kunlun 昆侖 Hills is west of the Western Hu 胡. These places are all in the northwest.

This shows that these colored rivers and jade mounts are tightly bound to the Kunlun 昆侖 Hills，which must be the mountains and rivers in the legend. Since it is firmly believed that there were jade mounts and colored rivers in the Kunlun 昆侖 Hills，then，when one traveled along the northern or southern foot of the Altai Mountains and came across mounts and rivers，one might consider wrongly that these were the jade mounts and colored rivers. ³⁰ In other words，it is unnecessary to be fettered by the records of Shanhaijing 山海經 when we identify the mountains and rivers related to the Kunlun 昆侖 Hills in Mutianzizhuan 穆天子傳.

Fourthly，to read“Yanju 焉居”and“Jusou 巨蒐”as Asii，“Yuzhi 禺知”and“Gugan 骨飦”as Gasiani，“Chiwu 赤烏”，“Zhuyu 珠余”and“Shouyu 余”as Sacarauli（or Sakā Rawaka），“Zhongyong 重 ”and“Western Xia 夏”as Tochari is at the base of my hypothesis on the history of the Sai 塞 tribes：

The Sakās of the Behistun inscription of Darius I [521-486 BCE ] of Achaemenian Persia（i.e.，the“Sai 塞 ethnic group”as seen in the“Xiyu zhuan 西域傳”of Hanshu 漢書，ch. 96）were mainly made up of four tribes，the Asii，the Gasiani，the Tochari，and the Sacarauli. By the end of the seventh century BCE ，the Asii and other tribes already lived in the valleys of the Rivers Ili and Chu. The Sakā tribes had possibly come from the east. The Asii，the Gasiani，the Tochari，and the Sacarauli seem to have been the Rong 戎 of the Surname Yun 允，the Yuzhi 禺知（Yuzhi 禺氏），the Daxia 大夏，and the Suoju 莎車 who appeared in pre-Qin 秦 records and books. The sphere of their movement roughly covered the area from the west of the Yellow River to the east of the Altai Mountains. In 623 BCE ，Duke Mu 穆 of Qin 秦 dominated the Western Rong 戎 and opened up territories that extended for 1,000 li 里. This event possibly caused the Sai 塞 tribes’western migration. ³¹ It is possible that the Sakā tribes who appear in Mutianzizhuan 穆天子傳 were those who remained in their eastern homeland after the above-mentioned westward movement，or some branches during the course of the westward movement. But which is the correct situation？It is difficult to affirm，because it is difficult to determine precisely the dates of the sources on which Mutianzizhuan 穆天子傳 was based.

The Sakās who entered an area were not necessarily composed of the members of one tribe alone. The members of other tribes often were there successively，or simultaneously，and their population also varied in number. In Mutianzizhuan 穆天子傳 a reflection of this situation is that the place name“the vast plain of Yanju 焉居 and Yuzhi 禺知”appears. ³²

Fifthly, in the above analysis, some tribes’names are understood to be different transcriptions of the same name. Here are such two cases:

1. With regard to different tribes that had the same origin，the Chinese historical records often adopt different Chinese characters. For example：“Yanju 焉居”and“Jusou 巨蒐”were the Asii；“Yuzhi 禺知”and“Gugan 骨飦”were the Gasiani；“Chiwu 赤烏”，“Zhuyu 珠余”and“Shouyu 余”were the Sacarauli；“Zhongyong 重 ”and“Western Xia 夏”were the Tochari；but they did not live at the same place；they were not the subjects of the same tribe. ³³

2. Mutianzizhuan 穆天子傳 was passed on in an oral tradition before it was compiled. Adopting different translated terms for the same people or tribes occurred during this process. The people who finalized the book did not give the names a detailed examination.“Peng 䣙 people”and“Wuyi 無夷”offer just one example.

C

The westward journey of Mu 穆，the Son of Heaven，as seen in Mutianzizhuan 穆天子傳（ch. 1），was as follows：

1.1“... drank to the Son of Heaven was entertained at a banquet on the top of Mount Juan 蠲”. There are missing words before“drank”. Mount Juan 蠲 was situated in present-day Gaoping 高平，Shanxi 山西. ³⁴

1.2“On the day wuyin 戊寅，the Son of Heaven proceeded northward，and thereupon crossed the Zhang 漳 River”. The Zhang 漳 River had two sources：a clear one and a turbid one. The place where the Son of the Heaven crossed the river was situated in present-day Changzhi 長治，Shanxi 山西. ³⁵

1.3“On the day gengchen 庚辰，the Son of Heaven reached ... The Son of Heaven drank on the Huge Rock”. The Huge Rock was situated to the northeast of Pingding 平定，Shanxi 山西. ³⁶

1.4“Never stopped to rest for the night，and he reached as far as the foot of Mount Xing 鈃”. Mount Xing 鈃 must have been the present-day Mount Jingxing 井陘，which was situated in Jingxing 井陘，Hebei 河北. ³⁷

1.5“On the day guiwei 癸未，it snowed；the Son of Heaven hunted on the western spur of Mount Xing 鈃 then crossed through the tunnel of Mount Xing 鈃，and went northwards along the northern bank of the Hutuo 虖沱 River”. The Hutuo 虖沱 River must have been the present-day Hutuo 虖沱 River. The reference“along the northern bank of the Hutuo 虖沱 River”refers to going against the stream after crossing the river near present-day Pingshan 平山，Hebei 河北. ³⁸

1.6“On the day yiyou 乙酉，the Son of Heaven ascended north ... The Son of Heaven proceeded northward as far as the Quan-Rong 犬戎. The Quan-Rong 犬戎，... the Hu 胡 [tribe]， ³⁹ drank to the Son of Heaven on the north bank of the Dang 當 River”. The Son of Heaven ascended a mount whose name is missing. It is possibly a peak of the Heng 恒 Mountains. ⁴⁰ The Dang 當 River was possibly the Heng 恒 River in the ancient times，and it must have been the present-day Sha 沙 River and Tang 唐 River. ⁴¹

It has been suggested that“the foot of Mount Xing 鈃”，which the Son of the Heaven reached on the third day，was situated approximately in the southeast of Huolu 獲鹿，Hebei 河北. Since he“went northwards along the northern bank of the Hutuo 虖沱 River”on the sixth day and arrived on the border of the Quan-Rong 犬戎，the southern fringe of the frontier of the Quan-Rong 犬戎 was approximately the border of Quyang 曲陽 and Xingtang 行唐，Hebei 河北. Its north was the present-day Taihang 太行 Mountain area，which was possibly the location of Quan-Rong 犬戎. ⁴² In my opinion，this theory is insufficiently precise.

1.7“On the day jiawu 甲午，the Son of Heaven proceeded on westward and crossed the steep slope of [Mount] Yu 隃”.“The steep slope of [Mount] Yu 隃”was situated at the present-day Mount Yanmen 雁門，Shanxi 山西. ⁴³

1.8“On the day jihai 己亥 ， [the Son of Heaven] arrived on the vast plain of Yanju 焉居 and Yuzhi 禺知”. The location of Yanju 焉居 and Yuzhi 禺知 must have been situated to the northeast of the Hetao 河套 area. ⁴⁴

1.9“On the day xinchou 辛丑，the Son of Heaven proceeded on westward and reached the country of the Peng 䣙 people. Peng Boxu 䣙伯絮，the descendant of Hezong 河宗 welcome the Son of Heaven at [the country] of Zhi 智 ...”. The feudality of the Peng 䣙 people is situated between present-day Heicheng 黑城 and Togto. ⁴⁵ “Zhi 智 ...”is situated in the area around Togto in the Hetao 河套 area，Inner Mongolia. ⁴⁶

1.10“On the day guimao 癸卯，the Son of Heaven camped in the neighborhood of Lake Qi 漆，then went fishing in the [Yellow] River and paid a visit to the country of Zhi 智 ...”：“Qize 漆 ”must have been an error for“Shenze 滲澤”which is seen in the ensuing passage.“The River”refers to the Yellow River within the Hetao 河套 area. ⁴⁷

1.11“On the day jiachen 甲辰，the Son of Heaven went hunting on Shenze 滲澤（Lake Shen 滲）and captured a white fox and a black mo 狢 with which he made a sacrifice to Hezong 河宗. On the day bingwu 丙午 the Son of Heaven took a drink by the [Yellow] River. In the Shen 滲 Marsh south of the state of Peng 䣙 the Son of Heaven reviewed his company，which was composed of six divisions of soldiers”.“Hezong 河宗”means the Earl of He 河（River）. There is no harm in considering that Lake Shen 滲 is the same as the present-day Lake Daishan 黛山. ⁴⁸

1.12“On the day wushen 戊申，the Son of Heaven proceeded westward，marching on as far as Mount Yangyu 陽紆，where Wuyi 無夷，the Earl of He 河（River），had established his family，the same as the Hezong 河宗 clan. Bo Yao 柏夭，the Hezong 河宗 people，welcomed the Son of Heaven at Mount Yanran 燕然. ... On the day guichou 癸丑 ， the Son of Heaven gave an audience on Mount Yan[ran] 燕[然]，by the River”. Mount Yangyu 陽紆 must have been the Yinshan 陰山 Mountains，Inner Mongolia. ⁴⁹ The residence of the Hezong 河宗 clan was situated in the right flank of Ordos，Inner Mongolia，and it possessed the north bank of the Hetao 河套 area. ⁵⁰ Mount Yanran 燕然 is a peak in the Yinshan 陰山 Mountains. ⁵¹

1.13“On the day jiwei 己未，the Son of Heaven gave a grand audience on Mount Huang 黃（Yellow）”. Mount Huang 黃（Yellow）must have been a peak in the Yinshan 陰山 Mountains. ⁵²

1.14“On the day yichou 乙丑，the Son of Heaven passed over the River to the west. ... There was in this region a valley called Ledu 樂都，which was warm in the winter and in which there was a traveling camp of the Hezong 河宗 clan”. The locale that Mu 穆，the Son of the Heaven，passed over must have been the Uga River in the western end of the Hetao 河套 area. There are tributaries densely covered between the Uga River and the Yellow River，which was possibly the location of the warm valley called Ledu 樂都，which was the camp to which the Hezong 河宗 traveled. ⁵³

1.15“On the day bingyin 丙寅，the Son of Heaven ... took a drink at a little islet in the tributary of the River，the South River of [Mount] Jishi 積石”.“Jishi 積石”must have been a peak in the northwest corner of the Hetao 河套 area.“The South River”is the main stream of the present-day Yellow River，which had derived its name“the South River”from the fact that it was situated to the south of the Yellow River（the present-day Uga River）in ancient times. ⁵⁴

The above describes the journey of Mu 穆，the Son of Heaven，showing that he turned west from the southern part of Shanxi 山西，via Mount Yanmen 雁門，and arrived at the Yinshan 陰山 Mountains，in the northwest part of Inner Mongolia.

D

The westward journey of Mu 穆，Son of Heaven，as seen in Mutianzizhuan 穆天子傳（ch. 2），was as follows：

2.1.1“[A proclamation was issued by the Son of Heaven] to Bo Yao 柏夭 entrusting him to confer upon Mozhou 膜晝 the right to rule over the north of the River，so that he would be able to offer sacrifices to the ancestor of the Yin 殷 people”. A description of the journey to the Zhuyu 珠余 tribe via the Western Xia 夏 tribe from the state of Hezong 河宗 is missing before“to confer upon Mozhou 膜晝”. The Zhuyu 珠余 clan lived between the Western Xia 夏（in the Hexi 河西 region）and the head of the [Yellow] River（the Juyan 居延 Sea）. It has been suggested that the“Mozhou 膜晝”must have been the Zhuyu 珠余 tribe. ⁵⁵ If this is correct，the Zhuyu 珠余 should be located in the valley of the present-day Zhangye 張掖 River，and“River”refers to the Zhangye 張掖 River. ⁵⁶

2.1.2“On the day dingsi 丁巳，the Son of Heaven ascended Mount ... on the southwest. ... On the day wuwu 戊午，the Julü 居慮，the Shou[yu] □ people，offered as presents 100 measures of wine”. The mount that Mu 穆，the Son of Heaven，ascended was inhabited by the Shou[yu] □ people. The mount was situated on the passage to the“Kunlun 昆侖 Hills”from Mount Xiang 襄，and it might be the present-day Mount Argun. Also，there should be a missing reference to describe the journey to Mount Xiang 襄（Khangai Mountains）from the Zhuyu 珠余 via the head of the [Yellow] River before“on the day dingsi 丁巳”.

2.2“After the entertainment the Son of Heaven advanced and halted on the spur of the Kunlun 昆侖 Hills by the northern bank of the Red River”.“Kunlun 昆侖”refers to the eastern end of the present-day Altai Mountains；and the Red River must have been the present-day Bodonqi River. ⁵⁷

2.3“Here was a mount called Jianniao 鳥，and the Son of Heaven remained there for three days. ... On the auspicious day xinyou 辛酉，the Son of Heaven ascended the Kunlun 昆侖 Hills”. Mount Jianniao 鳥 must have been a mountain that is situated in the eastern end of the Altai Mountains.

2.4“On the day jiazi 甲子，the Son of Heaven proceeded northward and halted at the Pearl Lake，to fish in the running stream. It is said that the marshes of the Pearl Pond were thirty li 里 square”. The Pearl Pond must have been the present-day Qara Usu Lake，and“the running stream”refers to the present-day Iger River.

2.5“On the day dingmao 丁卯 ， in the last month of the summer，the Son of Heaven ascended Mount Chong 舂 on the north，from where he could see the wilderness stretching in four directions. It is said that the mount was the highest mount on earth”. Mount Chong 舂 can be considered as the present-day Tsastγ-aula Mount.

2.6“On the day renshen 壬申，the Son of Heaven proceeded westward and on jiaxu 甲戌 he arrived at [the residence] of the Chiwu 赤烏. The Chiwu 赤烏 people presented to the Son of Heaven one thousand hu 斛 of wine，900 horses for food，3,000 cattle，and 100 carts fully loaded with millet and wheat”. The residence of the Chiwu 赤烏 people must have been situated to the west of the present-day Tsasat-aγula Mount.

2.7“On the day jimao 己卯 ， the Son of Heaven proceeded northward，driving forward without taking any rest，until on the day gengchen 庚辰 he crossed the Yang 洋 River，and on the day xinsi 辛巳，he arrived at [the domain of] the Caonu 曹奴. The Caonu 曹奴 people entertained the Son of Heaven at a banquet on the bank of the Yang 洋 River，offering as presents 900 horses for food，700 cattle，and 100 carts full of millet and rice”. The Yang 洋 River must have been the present-day Saksay River. ⁵⁸ The central territory of the Caonu 曹奴 people may be situated in the valley of the Yenisey River. Those who are seen in Mutianzizhuan 穆天子傳 may be a branch of that people that moved south.

2.8“On the day renwu 壬午，the Son of Heaven proceeded northward and turned eastward on his way back，arriving at the Black River on the day jiashen 甲申 . The people of the western regions called the Honglu 鴻鷺 River. It rained for seven days，and the Son of Heaven stopped to wait for the soldiers of the six divisions. Here he conferred on the Long-armed people the right to rule over the western portion of the Black River and held them responsible for making sacrifice to the ancestors of the Zhou 周 House on the Honglu 鴻鷺 River. The state is now called Liugu 畱骨”. The Black River must have been the present-day Qubdu Darya， ⁵⁹ and the state of Liugu 畱骨 might be situated in the valley of this river.

2.9“On the day xinmao 辛卯，the Son of Heaven proceeded northward and turned to the east by the Black River on the way back，arriving on guisi 癸巳 at Mount Qunyu 群玉 which the Rong[...] 容□ clan have defended”.“Mount Qunyu 群玉”which the Rong[...] 容□ clan had defended must have been on the northern bank of the Qubdu River，to the west of the Saγajaγai Nor.

2.10“On dingyou 丁酉，in the first month of autumn，the Son of Heaven proceeded northward. The Qianshi 潛時，of the ... people，feasted the Son of Heaven on Mount Yuling 羽陵，and offered the royal guest many good horses and cattle”.“Yuling 羽陵”was situated to the northwest of Mount Qunyu 群玉.

2.11“On the day wuxu 戊戌，the Son of Heaven proceeded westward and arrived at [the domain of] the Jilü 剞閭 clan on the day xinchou 辛丑 . The Son of Heaven stopped at the foot of Mount Iron and ordered the people of the Jilü 剞閭 to supply the six divisions of soldiers with provisions. On the day renyin 壬寅，the Son of Heaven ascended Mount Iron”. The residence of the Jilü 剞閭 clan must have been situated in the valley of the present-day Soghuk Darya，and Mount Iron might be the present-day Dosluk Čokisi（Friendship Peak）.

2.12“When the ceremony had been performed the Son of Heaven started out again to the west. On the day bingwu 丙午，the Son of Heaven arrived at [the domain of] the Juanhan 鄄韓 clan”. The residence of the Juanhan 鄄韓 clan was situated in the valley of the Buhturma Darya，to the west of the Friendship Peak.

2.13“On the day gengxu 庚戌，the Son of Heaven proceeded westward and arrived at the Black Pond. The Son of Heaven rested for three days on the Black Pond”. The Black Pond must have been the present-day Lake Balkash.

2.14“On the day guichou 癸丑，the Son of Heaven proceeded westward，arriving at Mount Ku 苦. The name of this western region was Maoyuan 茂苑（Garden of Prosperity）”. Mount Ku 苦 might be a mountain at the western end of the Altai Mountains.

2.15“On the day dingsi 丁巳，the Son of Heaven proceeded westward and on the day jiwei 己未 he stayed for the night on Mount Yellow Rat”. Mount Yellow Rat might be a peak at the western end of the Altai Mountains.

2.16“They proceeded on westward until on guihai 癸亥 they arrived at the domain of the Queen Mother of the West”. The state of the Queen Mother of the West，according to the journey of Mu 穆，the Son of Heaven，may be situated around the Zaysan Nor.

The above describes the journey of the Son of Heaven when he traveled north to the valley of the Qubdu Darya from the eastern end of the Altai Mountains, then turned west and arrived at the Zaysan Nor.

E

The westward journey of Mu 穆，the Son of Heaven，as seen in Mutianzizhuan 穆天子傳（ch. 3），was as follows：

3.1“On the auspicious day jiazi 甲子，the Son of Heaven paid a visit to the Queen Mother of the West. ... On the day yichou 乙丑，the Son of Heaven entertained the Queen Mother of the West at a banquet on Jade Pool. ... the Son of Heaven then rode on to Mount Yan 弇 and on the rocks engraved a record of this visit. He planted a memorial tree of sophora and named the place the Mount of the Queen Mother of the West”. Jade Pond must have been the present-day the Zaysan Nor. Since Mount Yan 弇 was the same as Mount Yanzi 崦嵫 and was situated in the utmost western place，it is necessarily at the end of the western journey of Mu 穆，the Son of Heaven. In fact，Mount Yan 弇 was the utmost western mountain that Mu 穆，the Son of Heaven，ascended in his western journey.

3.2“On the day dingwei 丁未，the Son of Heaven took a drink at Mount Wen 溫”. Mount Wen 溫 might be a peak at the western end of the Altai Mountains.

3.3“On the day jiyou 己酉，the Son of Heaven drank at the bank of the Ru 溽 River. ... There were forests，swamps and ponds full of water，and there were great hills，smooth plains and plateaus where big birds scattered their feathers. Now the six divisions of soldiers had concentrated in this vast plain where it is said the Son of Heaven stayed for three months”. The Ru 溽 River is the present-day Qaliγut River；the vast plain is that which surrounds the Zaysan Nor.

3.4“On the day jihai 己亥，the Son of Heaven returned eastward. ... On the day gengzi 庚子，he reached Mount ... and stopped”.“Mount ...”might be a mountain at the western end of the Altai Mountains.

3.5“On the day gengchen 庚辰，the Son of Heaven proceeded eastward，and on the day guiwei 癸未，he arrived at Mount Wu ... 戊□，where the men of the Zhi 智 clan made their home. ... The Son of Heaven made a trip to Lake Yizi 子（the Yellow Weasel Lake），on the north，where the goodman of the Zhi 智 clan presented one hundred measures of wine”. Mount Wu ... 戊□ might be the present-day Mount Kukŝin. Lake Yizi 子 might be the present-day Burultoqay Lake. It is suggested that“goodman”should be noted as“the people”.

3.6“On the day yiyou 乙酉，the Son of Heaven proceeded on southward and took his way back to the east. On the day jichou 己丑，he reached the Xian 獻 River and then proceeded on eastward after taking a drink. The company then proceeded on to the southeast”. The Xian 獻 River must have been the present-day Urungu River.

3.7“On the day jihai 己亥，[the Son of Heaven] arrived at Mount Gualu 瓜纑 . The mountain rose on three sides like a town wall and within it were settled the Ehu 閼胡 clan”. Mount Gualu 瓜纑 must have been the present Qutus Taǧ. The Ehu 閼胡 clan was situated to the south of Mount Qutus Taǧ.

3.8“The Son of Heaven proceeded eastward，crossing the desert on the south. On the day xinchou 辛丑，the Son of Heaven was thirsty and water could not be obtained in the desert”. The reference“crossing the desert on the south”refers to crossing the desert in the Dzungaria Basin.

3.9“The Son of Heaven then proceeded southward. On the day jiachen 甲辰，he reached the end of the Piled Stone Mountain range where he found cypresses growing. It is said that Minghuai 命懷，a Shouyu 余 people，presented wine to the Son of Heaven”. The Piled Stone Mountain，where the Shouyu 余 people presented wine，must have been situated in Mount Beitik or Mount Čong Qapteke.

The above describes the circumstance that Mu 穆，Son of Heaven，returned eastward along the southern foot of the Altai Mountains after he had met with the Queen Mother of the West around the Zaysan Nor.

F

The westward journey of Mu 穆，the Son of Heaven，as seen in Mutianzizhuan 穆天子傳（ch. 4），is described as follows：

4.1“On the day gengchen 庚辰，[the Son of Heaven] arrived at the Tao 滔 River，the water supply of the Zhuoyou 濁繇 clan”. The Tao 滔 River at which the Zhuoyou 濁繇 clan lived might be the present-day Yiwu 伊吾 River.

4.2“On the day xinsi 辛巳，the Son of Heaven proceeded eastward. On the day guiwei 癸未，he arrived at the Su 蘇 Valley，where the Gugan 骨飦 clan obtained the materials for their clothes”. The Su 蘇 Valley where the Gugan 骨飦 lived might be the Xingxing 星星 Canyon.

4.3.1“Proceeding on southward and making his way back to the east，the Son of Heaven arrived at [Mount] Changtan 長 ，the western frontier of the Chongyong 重 clan. On the day dinghai 丁亥，the Son of Heaven ascended [Mount] Changtan 長 ，and then proceeded eastward”.“Changtan 長 ”is the name of a mountain，which might be the present-day Mount Huaniu 花牛.

4.3.2“On the day gengyin 庚寅，[the Son of Heaven] arrived among the Chongyong 重 clan by the Black River. There was wild wheat and the wild beans that the people of the western regions named muhe 木禾，which furnished the chief food supply of the Chongyong 重 clan”. The Black River where the Chongyong 重 clan lived is different from the Black River as seen in chapter 2. This river might be the present-day Shule 疏勒 River.

4.3.3“There was Mount Caishi 采石 ruled by the Chongyong 重 clan. ... On the day dingyou 丁酉，the Son of Heaven ascended Mount Caishi 采石 and mined for precious stones. The Son of Heaven ordered the people of the Chongyong clan to carve the stones into vessels on the banks of the Black River”. Mount Caishi 采石 might be the present-day Mount Hei 黑.

4.3.4“On the day yichou 乙丑，the Son of Heaven proceeded eastward，and Guanyuan [the Chongyong 重 people] escorted him to Mount Changsha 長沙”. Mount Changsha 長沙 may be the present-day Mount Heli 合黎.

4.4“On the day bingyin 丙寅 ， the Son of Heaven proceeded eastward and turned to the south. On the day jisi 己巳，he arrived at Mount Wen 文，as it was called ... by the western regions. ... [the people] entertained the Son of Heaven at a banquet on Mount Wen 文”. Mount Wen 文 might be the present-day Mount Longshou 龍首.

4.5.1“Thus the Son of Heaven hurried forward to the southeast，driving for 1,000 li 里 as furiously as if flying through the sky. At last，he arrived at [the domain of] the Jusou 巨蒐 clan”. The reference“hurried forward to the southeast”and so on describes roughly the journey to the residence of the Jusou 巨蒐 clan from Mount Wen 文. The residence of the Jusou 巨蒐 clan must have been around the Yinshan 陰山 Mountains. ⁶⁰

4.5.2“On the day jiaxu 甲戌 . Sangnu 奴 from the Jusou 巨蒐 tribe entertained the Son of Heaven at a banquet on Mount Fenliu 焚畱”. Mount Fenliu 焚畱 may be the present-day Mount Sili.

4.6.1“On the day yihai 乙亥，the Son of Heaven proceeded southward，reached the eastern range of Mount Yangyu 陽紆，and then crossed the Biyao Valley”. The Biyao Valley might be a valley in the Daqing 大青 Mountains.

4.6.2“On the day [xin]si [辛]巳，[the Son of Heaven] arrived at Qixuan on the northern bank of the [Yellow] River. There was in this region [a mountain called] Tangsou 溲，where the descendants of the Earl of He 河（the [Yellow] River）attended upon the Great Son of Heaven”. Qixuan was situated to the northeast of the present-day Mount Lang 狼. The Mount where the Great Son of Heaven was attended must have been the present-day Mount Yanran 燕然. The reference“the descendants of the Earl of He 河”and so on refers to the statement that“Bo Yao 柏夭，the Hezong 河宗 people，welcomed the Son of Heaven at Mount Yanran 燕然”. ⁶¹

4.7“On the day guichou 癸丑，the Son of Heaven proceeded eastward and Bo Yao 柏夭 escorted him to [the domain of] the Peng 䣙 people. Peng Boxu 䣙伯絮 entertained the Son of Heaven at the Lake Zao 澡 on the bank of the Faduo 多 River. This is the place where the [Yellow] River flows southward. It is said that the Son of Heaven rested at Lake Zao 澡 for five days，waiting for his six divisions of soldiers，which he had left behind”.“Lake Zao 澡”is the same as Lake Shen 滲 seen in ch. 1. The Faduo 多 River was situated in the regions from Togto to Baotou 包頭. ⁶²

4.8“The Son of Heaven then turned southward，ascending the steep slope of Mount Changsong 長松”.“The steep slope of Mount Changsong 長松”was situated around present-day Youyu 右玉，Shanxi 山西. ⁶³

4.9“On the day renxu 壬戌，in the first month of winter，the Son of Heaven reached Mount Leishou 雷首. The Quan-Rong 犬戎，the Hu 胡 tribe，drank to the Son of Heaven at the spur of Mount Leishou 雷首，and presented him twenty-four fine horses”. It is suggested that Mount Leishou 雷首 was at Puzhou 蒲州 of Shanxi 山西，which faces Huayin 華陰 County of Shaanxi 陝西 across the river（where the Wei 渭 River pours into the Yellow River）. This locale is in accord with that described in the“Second Year of Duke Min 閔”section of Zuozhuan 左傳. That is to say，“Duke Guo 虢 defeated the Quan-Rong 犬戎 at the bend of the Wei 渭 River”. ⁶⁴

4.10“On the day guihai 癸亥，the Son of Heaven proceeded southward and ascended the steep slope of Mount Zi 髭”. Mount Zi 髭 must have been the present-day Mount Gouzhu 句注. ⁶⁵

4.11“On the day bingyin 丙寅，he reached the dangerous pass of Mount Xing 鈃. He ascended eastward the steep slope of Sandao 三道 and then put up at Erbian 二邊”. Both“the steep slope of Sandao 三道”and“Erbian 二邊”were situated to the east of Jingxing 井陘，Shanxi 山西. ⁶⁶

4.12“On the day guiyou 癸酉，the Son of Heaven ordered his servants to harness the eight steeds to his chariot，red horses four in a row. Driven by Zaofu 造父，he rode on like a bird flying through the Di 翟 Pass，up Mount Taihang 太行，and across the [Yellow] River on the south. On and on for a thousand li 里 he drove until at last he arrived at the town of Zongzhou 宗周”. The Di 翟 Pass was situated to the south of Jingxing 井陘，Shanxi 山西.“Taihang 太行”must have been the present-day Mount Taihang 太行. The [Yellow] River refers to the part of the Yellow River within the boundaries of Henan 河南 Province. Zongzhou 宗周，the capital of the Zhou 周 dynasty，was situated near present-day Luoyang 洛陽，Henan 河南.

The above describes how Mu 穆，the Son of Heaven，returned to Luoyang 洛陽 from the valley of the Yiwu 伊吾 River via the Hetao 河套 area.

4.13.1“On the day gengchen 庚辰，the Son of Heaven held a grand audience in the ancestral temple in the town of Zongzhou 宗周. He then estimated the distance of his travels to the west to be the following：From northwest of the Chan 瀍 River in Zongzhou 宗周 to the state of Hezong 河宗 and Mount Yangyu 陽紆 is 3,400 li 里”. The Chan 瀍 River must have been the present-day Chan 瀍 River，in Henan 河南. ⁶⁷

4.13.2“From the west of Mount Yangyu 陽紆 to the state of the Western Xia 夏 clan is 2,500 li 里”. The residence of the Western Xia 夏 clan must have been situated some place in the Hexi 河西 region.

4.13.3“From the Western Xia 夏 to the state of Zhuyu 珠余 clan as far as the head of the [Yellow] River is 1,500 li 里”. The so-called head of the [Yellow] River refers to the source of the [Yellow] River. To the editor of Mutianzizhuan 穆天子傳，the Yellow River rose in the Juyan 居延 Lake. The“[Yellow] River”，in fact，refers to the present-day Zhangye 張掖 River. ⁶⁸ The residence of the Zhuyu 珠余 clan might be located in the valley of this river.

4.13.4“From the head of the [Yellow] River，Mount Xiang 襄 on the southwest to Mount Chong 舂，the Pearl Lake，and the Kunlun 昆侖 Hills is 700 li 里”. According to the statement of ch. 2，the reference“on the southwest to Mount Chong 舂，the Pearl Lake and the Kunlun 昆侖 Hills”is a textual error for“on the southwest to Mount Chong 舂，the Kunlun 昆侖 Hills，and the Pearl Lake”，which should be corrected. Mount Xiang 襄 should be a peak in the present-day Khangai Mountains. The reference“southwest to”and so on describes how Mu 穆，the Son of Heaven，went north to Mount Xiang 襄 after arriving at the head of the [Yellow] River（the present-day Juyan 居延 Lake），and then went southwest to the Kunlun 昆侖 Hills（the eastern end of the Altai Mountains）.

4.13.5“From the west of Mount Chong 舂 to（Mount Chong 舂 where）the Chiwu 赤烏 clan lived was 300 li 里”. The reference“Mount Chong 舂 where”are redundant.

4.13.6“Turning northeast to Mount Qunyu 群玉 by the northern range of Mount Chong 舂，and from the west of Mount Qunyu 群玉 to the state of the Queen Mother of the West [the distance] was 3,000 li 里”. It is suggested that there should be missing words“700 li 里”to describe the distance for“turning northeast to Mount Qunyu 群玉 by the northern range of Mount Chong 舂”. ⁶⁹

4.13.7“... From the state of the Queen Mother of the West to the vast plain on the north，where the birds scattered their feathers was 1,900 li 里”. The character“... □”is possibly redundant.

4.13.8“...（From）Zongzhou 宗周 to the big vast plain on the northwest was 14,000 li 里”. The character“... □”is possibly“from”.

4.13.9“Turning southeast back to Mount Yangyu 陽紆 was 7,000 li 里”. The reference“southeast”and so on possibly describes the journey to Mount Yangyu 陽紆 from Mount Wen 文 via Mount Fenliu 焚畱.

4.13.10“Returning to the city of Zhou 周 was 3,000 li 里”. This describes the journey to the Luoyi 洛邑 of Zongzhou 宗周 from Mount Yangyu 陽紆.

4.13.11“The total extent of the various routes was [about] 25,000 li 里”. The“25,000 li 里”is an approximate value. In fact，the sum of the above distance is 24,000 li 里. ⁷⁰

Lastly，I shall address the calendar adopted by the editor of Mutianzizhuan 穆天子傳 and the records on distance in this book to conclude this paper.

There are many studies on the calendar adopted by the editor of Mutianzizhuan 穆天子傳. These studies attempting to explain the ancient calendar are not without benefit. Regrettably，the journey dates that were expressed with the Heavenly Stems and Earthly Branches by the editor of Mutianzizhuan 穆天子傳 are not a great help in ascertaining the location of the places. Since it is not possible to prove that Mu 穆，the Son of Heaven，or other people took this westward journey as described in Mutianzizhuan 穆天子傳，the dates expressed with the Heavenly Stems and Earthly Branches are possibly not real records. Stepping back a bit，even if some are real records，we can’t judge the distances on the basis of the numbers of days，because we do not understand the daily schedule of the traveler and the circumstances of the trip.

The distances recorded in Mutianzizhuan 穆天子傳 has always been a focus in researches. Regrettably，not only were there no accurate surveys in ancient times，but we also do not know whether the route was straight or otherwise. Even if the above-mentioned distances are all true records，they have not much value in determining the location of the places to which Mu 穆，the Son of Heaven，had been. Moreover，these distances are not original records，given the circumstances in which Mutianzizhuan 穆天子傳 was discovered and handed down from ancient times. To the west of“the head of the [Yellow] River”，especially，the correct information could not be obtained，even after the Western Han 漢 dynasty，let alone in the time described in Mutianzizhuan 穆天子傳.

It has been suggested that Mutianzizhuan 穆天子傳 is a novel. In my opinion，the most prominent expression of Mutianzizhuan 's 穆天子傳 properties as a novel is its records on dates and distances. These records can be left an open question when we discuss today the route of the westward journey of Mu 穆，the Son of Heaven.

NOTES

1 See LiChf1983, pp. 88-92.

2 See the first chapter in part II of this book.

3 On the Arimaspians, see YuTsh2000/2012(3), pp. 77-110/152-193.

4 On the Argippaei, see the first chapter in part II of this book.

5 Herodotus, see Grene, p. 282.

6 See Rudenko1957.

7 See MaY1990.

8 See WangShch2000. This paper's aim is to prove that the region through which the westward journey of Mu 穆，Son of Heaven，took place should include the Hexi 河西 Corridor of Gansu 甘肅，Qinghai 青海，Inner Mongolia，and Xinjiang 新疆.

9 On the Quan Rong 犬戎，see YuTsh2000/2012（3），pp. 77-110/152-193.

10 On the source and course of the Yuezhi 月氏，see YuTsh2000/2012（3），pp. 29-52/94-122.

11 See Mutianzizhuan huijiao jishi , pp. 24-25.

12 See Mutianzizhuan xizheng jiangshu , pp. 24-26.

13 See Mutianzizhuan huijiao jishi , pp. 141-142.

14 The griffins noted in Herodotus’work occur far to the north of the Jilü 剞閭 as seen in Mutianzizhuan 穆天子傳. However，this is possibly because the Jilü 剞閭 moved. This also shows that the times described in the two books are different.

15 On the griffins in Inner Eurasia, see Hayashi2006.

16 See MoriM1986.

17 See Mutianzizhuan huijiao jishi , pp. 26-27, 183-184.

18 See Mutianzizhuan huijiao jishi , p. 189.

19 See HuangShj1996.

20 See Ogawa1929(s).

21 See Mutianzizhuan huijiao jishi , p. 87.

22 See YuTsh2003/2013(1), pp. 477-485/573-583.

23 It is recorded in the“Wanghuijie 王會解”chapter of Yizhoushu 逸周書 that“The Daxia 大夏 produces Zibai 茲白 oxen”. Kong's 孔 commentary：“The Daxia 大夏 were the northwest Rong 戎”.

24 On the source of the Daxia 大夏，see YuTsh2000/2012（1），pp. 1-28/59-93.

25 On the Jusou 巨蒐，see YuTsh2000/2012（3），pp. 111-124/214-225.

26 See Mori1957.

27 In the“Xiyu zhuan 西域傳 A”of Hanshu 漢書（ch. 96A），it is recorded that“The elders of Anxi 安息 have learned by hearsay that in Tiaozhi 條支 there is the Ruo 弱 River and the Queen Mother of the West；but they have never seen them. If you travel by water westward from Tiaozhi 條支 for more than 100 days you draw near the place where the sun sets”. In the“Xirong zhuan 西戎傳”chapter of Weilüe 魏略，it is recorded that“Former generations erred in considering Tiaozhi 條支 as being situated west of Da Qin 大秦；the truth as now known is that it is east of it. Former generations likewise erred in considering it stronger than Anxi 安息；now we know that it is on the contrary subject to it，and is called the western frontier of Anxi 安息. Former generations also erred in considering the Ruo 弱 River to be situated west of Tiaozhi 條支；now we know that the Ruo 弱 River is west of Da Qin 大秦. Former generations also erred in thinking that by traveling more than two hundred days westward from Tiaozhi 條支 one draws near the place where the sun sets；now we know that it is from west of Da Qin 大秦 that one draws near to the place where the sun sets”.“The place where the sun sets”，as with the Queen Mother of the West，was moved unceasingly to the west with the expansion of the Chinese geographical visual field.

28 On the shifting sands，Guo's 郭 commentary says：“It was located in the present Western Sea，i.e.，Juyan 居延 Marsh”.

29 The reference in the“Xirong zhuan 西戎傳”chapter of Weilüe 魏略：“[To the] west of the shifting sands are the states of Daxia 大夏，Jiansha 堅沙，Shuyou 屬繇，and Yuezhi 月氏”and so on is also found in the“Xirong zhuan 西戎傳”chapter of Weilüe 魏略. In my opinion，the records in Weilüe 魏略 are another question entirely：Here“Shuyou 屬繇”refers to the central territory of the Sugda people，which was in the valley of the Zarafshan River，“Daxia 大夏”，the Tochari who destroyed the Greek kingdom of Bactria；“Yuezhi 月氏”，the Da Yuezhi 大月氏 who replaced the Daxia 大夏 and ruled Bactria；“Jiansha 堅沙”，the Kushān people who overthrew the rule of the Da Yuezhi 大月氏. Weilüe 魏略 juxtaposes the three：Daxia 大夏，Jiansha 堅沙，and Yuezhi 月氏，but this record still mirrors—however tortuously—the actual historical course：the Daxia 大夏 were conquered by the Yuezhi 月氏，and the Yuezhi 月氏 by the Guishuang 貴霜（Jiansha 堅沙）. This an example of the way in which Chinese historians in ancient times were fond of following the preceding historical records，and sometimes poured new wine into an old bottle when they recorded the foreign regions.

30 Later the Red River and the Jade Mount were moved far to the west of Da Qin 大秦 with the Queen Mother of the West：“To the west of Da Qin 大秦 is an expanse of sea，to the west of which are river waters，and to the west of these are great mountains running north-south. To the west（of these）is Red Water，and west of Red Water is White Jade Mountain. White Jade Mountain is the abode of the Queen Mother of the West. West of the Queen Mother of the West are the shifting sands”.（See the“Xirong zhuan 西戎傳”chapter of Weilüe 魏略）.

31 See YuTsh1992/2012(2), pp. 210-227/271-294.

32 These inevitable circumstances are partly reflected in the relatively stabilized names of states and places at the time as described in the“Xiyu zhuan 西域傳”of Hanshu 漢書（ch. 96）. See YuTsh1992/2012（2），pp. 210-227/271-294.

33 This appearance is especially obvious in the later“Xiyu zhuan 西域傳”of Hanshu 漢書（ch. 96）；see YuTsh1992/2012（2），pp. 210-227/271-294.

34 See Mutianzizhuan huijiao jishi ，p. 4. This work collects the various viewpoints on the studies of Mutianzizhuan 穆天子傳，analyses them one by one and then decides which to use，often adding new evidence. This paper cites the viewpoints that are approved by Wang 王 as Wang's 王 own，omitting the citations on which he bases them.

35 See Mutianzizhuan huijiao jishi , pp. 5-6.

36 See Mutianzizhuan huijiao jishi , p. 7.

37 See Mutianzizhuan huijiao jishi , pp. 9-10.

38 See Mutianzizhuan huijiao jishi , pp. 5-13.

39 On the reference“The Quan-Rong 犬戎，... the Hu 胡”， Mutianzizhuan xizheng jiangshu ，p. 10，considers that“...”should be deleted.

40 See Mutianzizhuan huijiao jishi , p. 14.

41 See Mutianzizhuan xizheng jiangshu , pp. 10-11.

42 ChenP1988, pp. 1031-1036.

43 See Mutianzizhuan huijiao jishi , p. 21.

44 See Mutianzizhuan huijiao jishi , pp. 22-23.

45 See Mutianzizhuan huijiao jishi , pp. 24-25.

46 See Mutianzizhuan huijiao jishi , pp. 26-27.

47 See JinShh1985.

48 See Mutianzizhuan huijiao jishi , pp. 29-30.

49 See Mutianzizhuan huijiao jishi , pp. 34-36.

50 See Mutianzizhuan xizheng jiangshu , pp. 24-26.

51 See Mutianzizhuan huijiao jishi , pp. 38-39.

52 See Mutianzizhuan huijiao jishi , p. 55.

53 See Mutianzizhuan huijiao jishi , pp. 65-67. Ogawa, esp. p. 321, suggests that this time the location at which the [Yellow] River was crossed should be situated at a place where a tributary in the northern end of the Yellow River (the North River) turns south from north.

54 See Mutianzizhuan huijiao jishi , pp. 70-71.

55 See Mutianzizhuan xizheng jiangshu , pp. 53-54.

56 See CenZhm1962(m).

57 Old notes say that“There are five colors of rivers. The Red River flows out of the southeastern corner of the Kunlun 昆侖 Hills and flows northeast，which is recorded in Shanhaijing 山海經”. In my opinion，in the existing“Xishanjing 西山經”chapter of Shanhaijing 山海經 it is recorded that the Red River“flows southeast”. From this，we know that the content of Shanhaijing 山海經 on which the old notes were based is not necessarily the same as the existing version. The evidence also can be found in Taiping yulan 太平御覽（ch. 85），in which the reference is cited as“In the Kunlun 昆侖 Hills there is the Red River，which flows northeast，see Shanhaijing 山海經”.

58 On the Yang 洋 River，old notes say that“The river also flows out of the northwestern corner of the Kunlun 昆侖 Hills and flows east”.

59 On the Black River，old notes say that“The river also flows out of the northwestern corner of the Kunlun 昆侖 Hills and flows southeast”. However，in the current text is derived from the“Xishanjing 西山經”chapter of Shanhaijing 山海經 it is recorded that the Yang 洋 River“flows southwest”，the Red River“flows southeast”，and the Black River“flows west”，which all are different from the statements as seen in the old notes.

60 Mutianzizhuan tongjie ，p. 73，suggests that the residence of the Jusou 巨蒐 should be located around the Aibiha River and the Shiramorin River to the north of the Yinshan 陰山 Mountains. Mutianzizhuan jinkao ，pp. 215-216，considers that reaching the residence of the Jusou 巨蒐 was one day's journey from the eastern end of Mount Yangyu 陽紆. It is certainly located at a place that is no more than 100 li 里 to the north of the eastern foot of the Yinshan 陰山 Mountains.

61 Mutianzizhuan jinkao , pp. 308-310.

62 See Mutianzizhuan huijiao jishi , pp. 224-225.

63 See Mutianzizhuan xizheng jiangshu , pp. 228-229.

64 Chunqiu dili kaoshi （ch. 1）. There have been various opinions on the geographical location of Leishou 雷首；see Mutianzizhuan huijiao jishi ，p. 227.

65 See Mutianzizhuan xizheng jiangshu , pp. 232-233.

66 See Mutianzizhuan huijiao jishi , p. 231.

67 See Mutianzizhuan xizheng jiangshu , pp. 240-241.

68 CenZhm1962(m).

69 See Mutianzizhuan huijiao jishi , p. 240.

70 On the distances, see Mutianzizhuan huijiao jishi , pp. 241-246. 3f3+3lbQDrFE70y/LUrjKjPE1F+pt5H4WDTbPAW6bD89qvV9LiRQbzfC0NzdaogT