英语主要有三种构词法:
转化(conversion)——由一个词类转化为另一个词类:
shop(名词)商店 → shop(动词)购物
派生(derivation)——通过加前后缀构成另一个词:
happy → unhappy(加前缀)
happiness(加后缀)
happily(加后缀)
unhappily(既加前缀,又加后缀)
unhappiness(既加前缀,又加后缀)
合成(compounding)——由两个或更多词合成一个词:
in+come → income(收入)
happy+go+lucky → happy-go-lucky(无忧无虑的)
除了上述主要构词法外,还有一些次要的构词法:
截短法(clipping):
即把一个词截去一部分,构成一个新词,可以截去前面部分(1),也可截去后面部分(2):
(1)telephone → phone(电话)aeroplane → plane(飞机)
helicopter → copter(直升机)omnibus → bus(公共汽车)
bicycle → cycle(自行车)
(2)advertisement → ad(广告)exposition → expo(博览会)
gentlemen's → gents(男厕所)public house → pub(酒店)
stereophonic → stereo(立体声的)mathematics → maths(数学)
professional → pro(职业的)examination → exam(考试)
laboratory → lab(实验室)photograph → photo(照片)
microphone → mike(麦克风)memorandum → memo(备忘录)
taxicab → taxi(出租车)kilogram → kilo(公斤)
有个别词前后各截去一部分,如:
refrigerator → fridge(冰箱)influenza → flu(流感)
有时几个词合成一个词,如:
a prefabricated house → prefab(预制房屋)
a popular song singer → pop-singer(流行歌曲歌手)
混合(blend):
即把两个词各取一部分混合在一起:
news broadcast → newscast(新闻广播)
parachute troops → paratroops(伞兵)
television broadcast → telecast(电视播送)
transfer+resistor → transistor(晶体管)
travel catalogue → travelogue(旅游影片或游记)
motorist's hotel → motel(供开车旅客住的旅馆)
breakfast and lunch → brunch(早午餐,早饭午饭一起吃)
Europe+Asia → Eurasia(欧亚大陆)
smoke and fog → smog(烟雾)
缩写(abbreviation):
有些词可以缩写,其中有些按字母读音(1),有些像单词一样拼读在一起(2):
(1)TB(肺结核)MIT(麻省理工学院)
BBC(英国广播公司)VIP(重要人物,贵宾)
CNN(美国有线电视新闻网)CBS(美国哥伦比亚广播公司)
PRC(中华人民共和国)U.S.A(美国)
UK(联合王国,英国)UN(联合国)
IMF(国际货币基金组织)WTO(世界贸易组织)
WB(世界银行)LA(洛杉矶)
B.A.(学士学位)M.A.(硕士学位)
PhD(博士学位)MP(英国会议员)
(2)NATO /'neɪtəʊ/(北约)OPEC /'əʊpek/ (石油输出国组织)
UFO /'ju:fəʊ/(不明飞行物,亦可读作/ˌju:ef'əʊ/)
UNESCO /ju:'neskəʊ/(联合国教科文组织)
laser /'leɪzə/(激光)radar /'reɪdə/(雷达)
反转构词法(backformation):
一般词都是先有词根再加词缀,但也有少数词,是先有名词,然后去掉词缀而构成动词,这种办法称为反转构词法:
有大量动词可以转化为名词:
Let me have a try . 我来试一试。
We stopped there for a swim . 我在那儿停下来游了一会儿泳。
She gave an amused laugh . 她感到有趣,笑了一笑。
She gave a cry when he came in. 他进来时,她叫了一声。
We might take a stroll . 我们可以去蹓一蹓。
She had a good cry . 她大哭了一场。
Helen gave him a hug . 海伦拥抱了他一下。
She gave him a long kiss . 她给了他一个长吻。
有些动词转化成名词时意思有些变化:
He was about the same build as his brother. 他的体型和他哥哥差不多。
Last year's catch was 21 million tons. 去年的捕鱼量为2 100万吨。
This was a decisive move . 这是决定性的一步。
Corn is used as chicken feed . 玉米可用作鸡饲料。
The mayor took the lead and subscribed £20. 市长带头捐了20英镑。
He took leave after thanking the host. 向主人表示感谢后,他就告辞了。
下面动词都可转化为名词:
许多表示物件的名词可以用作动词(意思也随之有些变化):
Have you booked your ticket? 你的票订好了吗?
Who is to chair the meeting? 谁来主持会议?
He pinned great hopes on us. 他对我们寄托了很大希望。
It can seat a thousand people. 它能坐一千人。
We have mapped out a plan of the campaign. 我们已制订了开展这个运动的计划。
The money was all pocketed by corrupt officials. 这钱都进了贪官污吏的腰包。
He hammered a nail into the wall. 他在墙上钉了一颗钉子。
表示身体某部分的名词也可用作动词:
I handed in my resignation. 我交上了我的辞呈。
We've got to back him up. 我们必须支持他。
He must shoulder his responsibilities. 他必须肩负他的责任。
She fingered the silk gently. 她轻轻地抚摸那缎子。
She's always nosing into other people's business. 她总爱管别人的闲事。
I elbowed my way through the crowd. 我推挤着穿过人群。
某些表示一类人的名词也可用作动词:
What's the use of trying to fool me that way? 设法这样骗我有什么用?
She nursed me day and night for three weeks. 三个礼拜她日夜护理我。
The group was hosted by the ambassador. 这群人受到了大使的招待。
An order was given to man the boats. 下达了命令,给船配备人员。
The Wright brothers pioneered in early aviation. 在早期航空事业中莱特兄弟起了开拓的作用。
The aviator pilots his airplane. 这位飞行家自己驾驶飞机。
一些表示实物的名词也可用作动词:
Many villagers volunteered to house the flood victims. 许多村民主动提出给水灾灾民提供住处。
They must try to bridge the generation gap between them. 他们必须填补他们之间的代沟。
I believe it is going to flower this year. 我相信它今年会开花。
They floored the room. 他们给房间铺上地板。
They dammed the river to control flooding. 他们在河上筑坝来控制洪水。
She dusted the furniture. 她掸去家具上的尘土。
The pill is coated with sugar. 药丸外面包有糖衣。
He wolfed down three great bowls of rice. 他狼吞虎咽吃下三大碗饭。
有些抽象名词也可用作动词:
Where do swallows winter ? 燕子在哪里过冬?
This angered him at first. 开头这使他很生气。
You timed your arrival beautifully. 你到达的时间选择得极好。
She had already breakfasted and gone out. 她已吃过早饭出去了。
It stormed all that day. 那天一整天风雨大作。
He's thirsting for revenge. 他渴望报仇。
有些形容词也可以转化为动词:
The train slowed down to half its speed. 火车速度减慢了一半。
The river narrows at this point. 这条河在这里变窄。
Shelley was unable to calm her. 谢利没法使她平静下来。
He idled around the house all morning. 整个上午他都在屋里闲待着。
That river empties into the sea. 那条河流入大海。
She busied herself (in) tidying up the desk. 她忙着收拾她的写字台。
Don't dirty your hands. 别把你的手弄脏了。
She wishes to better your condition. 她希望改善你的状况。
His hair is graying quickly. 他的头发迅速变得花白。
He lowered his voice.他放低了声音。
还有少数其他词类的词可用作动词(如副词变为动词等):
This helped to further their unity. 这促进他们更团结。
Truth will out . 真相总会大白。
The guns downed four bombers. 大炮击落了四架轰炸机。
Would you be so kind as to forward my letters? 可否劳驾把我的信转给我?
I second the motion. 我附议。
也有一些形容词可用作名词:
Exports are at a new high . 出口达到新的最高水平。
Temperature reached a new low . 气温下降到新的最低点。
What does the total come to? 总数是多少?
She is too young to know the difference between right and wrong . 她年纪太小,分不清是非。
At the finals, they lost to Hungary. 在决赛时,他们输给匈牙利了。
Unemployment among blacks was twice as high as that for whites . 黑人失业率是白人的两倍。
Many of the nobles joined the uprising. 许多贵族也参加了起义。
I've reserved a single for you. 我给你留了一间单人房。
Jane and Tom won the mixed doubles . 简和汤姆在混合双打中获胜。
还有一些其他的转化情况:
She was asked to give a repeat performance. 他们请她重复表演一次。(动词 → 形容词)
They held a fancy dress ball. 他们举行了一个化装舞会。(名词 → 形容词)
Drag hinders the forward motion of the aircraft. 拉力妨碍飞机的前进。(副词 → 形容词)
They began to march north . 他们开始向北进军。(名词 → 副词)
In wartime, cities were blacked out to protect against bombing from planes. 战争时期,城市实行灯火管制,以防止飞机轰炸。(形容词 → 动词)
有少数词在一定情况下可用作名词:
There are too many ifs in your offer. 你提的条件中“假定”太多。
Warm clothes are a must in mountains. 在山里,必须要有暖和的衣服。
Father told him not to always ask the whys and wherefores when he was told to do something. 他父亲告诉他,让他做什么事时不要老是问为什么。
Have you considered the why and how of this plan? 你考虑这计划的目的和方式了没有?
在大多数情况下,词类转化时语音没有变化,但有些词的重音会发生变化:
也有个别词,作形容词时重音在前,作动词时重音在后:
个别双音节词作两种词类时重音不变:
comment /'kɒment/ contact /'kɒntækt/ debate /dɪ'beɪt/
另外有些词,转换词类时,词尾读音有变化,有时拼法也有变化:
个别词的拼法有差异而读音却不变:
practice 练习(名)practise 练习(动)
在美国,动词、名词都用practice这个形式。
有些词在转变为另一词类时元音也发生变化,有的音不变但拼法变了:
还有个别词可兼作形容词和动词,词形不变,读音有变化:
有的词作名词和动词时也有些差别:
派生主要指在词根上加前缀和后缀(也可称为词头和词尾)形成新词。后缀数量很大,大体可分为以下几类:
(1)常见的构成名词的后缀:
-ability -age -al -an -ance -ant
-ate -ation -cy -dom -ee -eer
-ence -er -ery -ese -ess -ful
-hood -ian -ibility -ing -ion -ism
-ist -ity -let -man -ment -ness
-or -ry -ship -ty -ure -ware
-y
(2)常见的构成形容词的后缀:
-able -al -an -ant -ary -ate
-ed -en -ent -ese -ful -ible
-ic (al) -ing -ish -ive -less -like
-ly -ous -some -wide -worthy -y
(3)构成副词、动词及数词的后缀:
-ly -down -first -ward(s) -wise -ize (ise)
-en -ify -ate -teen -th -ty
前缀数量也很大,主要有以下几类:
(1)改变词类的前缀:
a- be- em- en- out-
(2)构成反义词的前缀:
de- dis- il- im- in- ir-
non- un-
(3)常见的表示特定意思的前缀:
all- anti- arch- auto- bi- bio-
centi- co- counter- double- down- ever-
ex- extra- fore- free- full- half-
hand- home- hydro- ill- inter- kilo-
mal- man- mid- milli- mini- mis-
new- news- over- post- pre- pro-
re- self- semi- sub- super- tele-
too- trans- under- uni- up- vice-
well-
构成名词的后缀很多,较为常见的有以下这些:
构成形容词的后缀也很多,常见的有以下这些:
构成副词的后缀:
-ly clearly slowly obviously naturally
exactly finally gradually rapidly
-down head-down palm-down belly-down face-down
-first head-first heel-first nose-first feet-first
-ward(s) homeward westward(s) onward(s) backward(s)
eastward(s) upward(s)
-wise likewise clockwise anticlockwise vote-wise
构成动词的后缀:
-ate activate originate motivate hyphenate
-en widen hasten lengthen strengthen
sharpen shorten deepen weaken
-ify simplify clarify notify purify
qualify terrify horrify justify
identify
-ize apologize moralize emphasize criticize
symbolize sympathize
构成数词的后缀:
-teen thirteen fourteen fifteen sixteen
-ty twenty thirty fifty eighty
-th fifth twelfth eighth thirtieth
一些构成名词的后缀:
-archy anarchy hierarchy oligarchy monarchy
-arian librarian vegetarian humanitarian
parliamentarian
-cide suicide homicide genocide pesticide
-craft aircraft hovercraft spacecraft handicraft(s)
-ette cigarette kitchenette usherette leatherette
-folk townsfolk womenfolk
-gram diagram telegram kilogram milligram
-graph autograph paragraph telegraph photograph
-hand farm-hand factory-hand garage-hand deckhand
-head spearhead pinhead letterhead bridgehead
-aholic alcoholic workaholic chocoholic
-ial denial burial editorial memorial
-itis arthritis hepatitis bronchitis appendicitis
-logue dialogue catalogue epilogue monologue
-mania kleptomania egomania nymphomania dipsomania
-mate schoolmate roommate classmate playmate
-meter barometer speedometer thermometer
-metre centimetre kilometre millimetre nanometre
-monger fishmonger warmonger rumourmonger whoremonger
-ocracy aristocracy autocracy bureaucracy democracy
-ocrat aristocrat bureaucrat democrat technocrat
-ology biology archaeology psychology ecology
-phone earphone saxophone telephone xylophone
-scape landscape seascape moonscape
一些构成形容词的后缀:
-based market-based class-based community-based
coal-based
-bound duty-bound housebound westbound
London-bound
-conscious self-conscious class-conscious safety-conscious
ecology-conscious
-fold twofold threefold eightfold tenfold
-free carefree tax-free risk-free
pollution-free
-headed hot-headed clear-headed muddle-headed
bald-headed
-led market-led state-led consumer-led
government-led
-made handmade homemade man-made US-made
-minded open-minded absent-minded liberal-minded
practical-minded
-most innermost topmost foremost outmost
-ological biological ecological ideological
archaeological
-poor nutrient-poor oxygen-poor nitrogen-poor
resource-poor
-proof waterproof soundproof fireproof
bullet-proof
-related job-related age-related drug-related
race-related
-rich carbon-rich fibre-rich fat-rich
protein-rich
-side bedside fireside lakeside riverside
-sized apple-sized fist-sized pea-sized
postcard-sized
-stricken panic-stricken horror-stricken grief-stricken
poverty-stricken
-ular muscular molecular curricular triangular
可用来改变词类的前缀有以下这些:
a- 加在名词前构形容词或副词:
asleep aboard aside ashore ablaze
be- 加在名词或形容词前构成动词:
belittle befriend behead bewitch bedim
em- 加在名词等前构成动词:
embark embed embody empower embitter
en- 加在名词前构成动词:
endanger encourage enrage enforce enslave
加在形容词前构成动词:
enrich enlarge ennoble endear enable
out- 加在名词或形容词前构成动词:
outflank outnumber outpace outplay outsmart
outwit
用来构成反义词的前缀主要有以下这些:
de- de-emphasize decentralize demilitarize demobilize
非…… declassify decolonize dehydrate depoliticize
dis- disappear disobey disapprove disagree
不…… dislike displease distrust dissatisfy
构成动词 disbelieve disband disarm dismount
dis- disbelief disorder disrespect disobedience
构成名词 disadvantage discontent dishonour discomfort
dis- disloyal dishonest disinterested disorderly
构成形容词 discourteous disreputable dissimilar
disproportionate
il- illegal illogical illiterate illegitimate
im- impatient impolite impossible immature
in- incapable informal inadequate independent
ir- irresolute irresponsible irresistible irregular
non- (非)non-essential non-economic non-violent
non-competitive non-smoker
un-形容词:unable uncertain unsafe
unemployed unfortunate uncomfortable
副词:unluckily unhappily unusually unwillingly
unfortunately
名词:uncertainty unpleasantness unhappiness
unemployment unwillingness
动词:undress uncover undo unwrap
unpack unbutton untie unlock
分词:unfinished unprepared unprecedented
unchanging unhesitating
大部分前缀都表示一定的意义。较常见的前缀有以下这些:
aero- 空中的 aeroplane aerodynamic
aeronautics aerospace
agro- 农业的 agrology agronomy agronomist
agrochemical
ante- 在……前的 anteroom antedate
antechamber antecedent
astro- 太空的 astronaut astronomy
astrology astrophysics
audio- 听觉的 audio-visual audio-tape
audio-cassette audio-typist
cardi- 心脏 cardiac cardiologist cardiograph
cardiogram
chron- 时间 chronic chronology chronicle
chronometer
contra- 反,防 contrary contradiction
contraceptive contravene
cross- 横跨 cross-country cross-channel
cross-harbour cross-border
deci- 十进,十分之一 decimal decimetre decilitre
decibel
eco- 生态的 ecology ecologist ecosystem
eco-technological
electro- 电的,电子的 electronic electrocute electrolyte
electrode
Euro- 欧洲的 Euro-bank Euro-currency Euro-policy
Euro-parliament
fresh- 刚刚……的 fresh-cut fresh-baked fresh-fried
fresh-made
geo- 与地有关的 geology geography geothermal
geophysics
homo- 相同的 homogeneous homosexual
homonym homogenous
hyper- 极为……的 hyper-modern hyper-creative
hyper-alert
mega- 非,极大的 megahertz megaton
megastar megaloss
micro- 微……的 microscope microfilm micro-organism
mock- 假装的 mock-fight mock-modesty
mock-sadness mock-childish
mono- 单一的 monologue monosyllabic monogamy
monotonous
multi- 多……的 multilateral multinational multi-party
multi-purpose
neo- 新 neo-classical neo-colonialism
neo-Nazism neo-Gothic
neur(o)- 神经的 neurology neurobiologist
neurosurgeon
once- 一度…… once-famous once-popular
once-fashionable
para- 副,准 paratyphoid paramedic paramilitary
空降…… parachute paratrooper paragliding
phon- 声音的 phonetics phonology
phonograph phoneme
poly- 多……的 polysyllabic polytechnic
polygon polygamy
pseudo- 仿……,假 pseudo-metal pseudo-modern
pseudo-friend
quadr- 四……的 quadrangle quadrilateral quadruped
(quadri-)
quasi- 近似……的 quasi-academic quasi-official
quasi-legal
socio- 社会 sociological socioeconomic
sociolinguistic
sur- 超过 surcharge surplus
surpass surmount
sym (n)- 相同 synonym sympathy
synchronize synthesis
tech- 技术(艺)technical technician
technique technology
thermo- 热的 thermotherapy thermometer
thermoelectric
tri- 三 triangle tripartite trilateral
trilogy
ultra- 极,外 ultra-secret ultra-smart
ultra-tiny ultraviolet
video- 图像的 videotape videodisc
video-recorder video-cassette
英语中的合成词很多,最多的是合成名词。它们有的写成一个词,有的用连字符连在一起,有的甚至没有连字符,分写成两词。关于加不加连字符,没有明确的规定,但以下几点可作参考:
(1)由两个短词构成的合成词,常可连写在一起:
bookcase(书柜)bookmark(书签)bookshop(书店)
bookworm(书呆子)
teacup(茶杯)teapot(茶壶)tearoom(茶馆)
teaspoon(茶匙)
但也有一些不连写:
bus stop(公共汽车站)tea party(茶会)
taxi stand(出租汽车站)
(2)有些由self等这类词或由动词构成的合成词常带连字符:
self-respect(自尊心)self-determination(自决)
self-government(自治)
fire-eater(吞火魔术师)fire-raising(纵火罪)
make-up(化妆品)
也有些连写:
handbill(传单)handout(分发的材料)
fireplace(壁炉)waterway(航道)
(3)由动名词构成的合成词多数带连字符:
horse-riding window-shopping
但也有连写的,如:
sunbathing babysitting windsurfing
weightlifting
也有分写的,如:
working day food poisoning family planning
data processing
(4)也有不少词是分写的:
fairy tale(童话)film star(电影明星)
high school(中学)contact lens(隐形眼镜)
talcum powder(痱子粉)science fiction(科幻小说)
英语中的合成形容词也不少,可用作表语(1),也可用作定语(2):
(1)Are you air sick ? 你晕飞机吗?
All these are Chinese-designed . 这些都是中国设计的。
She is lively and outgoing . 她很活泼开朗。
My mother is always easygoing . 我母亲总是好说话的。
(2)I saw a row of house with well-kept gardens. 我看到一排有管理良好的花园的房子。
He bought a few things in the duty-free shop. 他在免税商店买了一些东西。
The move was welcomed by all peace-loving people. 这一行动受到所有爱好和平人士的欢迎。
合成形容词多数都带有连字符,如:
a tree-lined avenue 两边都有树的大道
an open-minded person 一位胸襟开阔的人
a time-consuming job 一项费时间的工作
his long-suffering wife 他长期受苦的妻子
a four-hour meeting 一场开了四个钟头的会
a three-day conference 一场开了三天的会议
a second-hand car 一辆二手车
只有少数连写,如:
a waterproof watch 一只防水手表
a carefree life 无忧无虑的生活
合成动词都由一个动词和另一个词构成,如:
They are now mass-producing this instrument.
他们正大批量生产这种仪器。
Children ice-skated on the side walks. 孩子们在人行道上滑冰。
合成动词绝大多数都带连字符,但也有一些是连写的,如:
She regularly babysits for them. 她经常给他们看孩子。
Insurance costs have skyrocketed. 保险费大幅上升。
He was blacklisted because of his anti-government activities. 他由于反政府的活动被列入了黑名单。
He planned to hitchhike through France. 他打算搭顺风车穿过法国。
合成副词数量少一些,但也有,如:
She greeted them warm-heartedly . 她热情地和他们打招呼。
You're allowed 1/2 litres of spirits duty-free . 你可以免税带1/2升的酒。
He greeted us absent-mindedly . 他心不在焉地和我们打了招呼。
还有许多代词是合成词,如:
somebody nothing anyone myself ourselves
也有些介词为合成词,如:
throughout into onto without alongside
由于使用得很多,人们已不感到它们是合成词了。
合成名词数量巨大,最多的是由名词加名词构成,其中有些为可数名词,常见的如:
另一些为不可数名词,常见的如:
还有一些通常用于单数的合成词,如:
也有少数合成名词常用于复数形式,如:
有些合成名词由形容词加名词构成,常见的如:
有些合成名词由动词的-ing形式或-ed形式与另一个词构成,常见的如:
还有些合成名词以其他方式构成,其中有些由三个或更多词构成,如:
合成形容词很多由过去分词或带-ed词尾的词构成,特别是品质形容词,如:
类属形容词也如此,如:
续表
也有不少形容词由动词的-ing形式和另一个词构成,如:
还有一些形容词由“形容词+名词”(1)或“名词等+形容词”(2)构成:
还有一些其他形式的合成形容词,特别是一些包含副词的合成词:
(1)动词+副词:
run-down 年久失修的 drive-in 能够开车进去的(电影院)
cast-off 扔掉的 broken-down 破旧不堪的
built-up 盖满房子的(地区)built-in 嵌在墙内的(橱柜)
(2)副词+名词:
off-guard 失去警惕的 off-peak 非高峰期的
off-campus 校园外的 off-budget 预算外的
off-hour 休息时间的 uphill 上山的
outdoor 户外的 off-hand 未经准备的
(3)其他形式的:
all-out 全力以赴的 well-off 富裕的
three-hour 三小时的 ten-minute 十分钟的
two-year-old 两岁大的 third-floor 三层楼上的
all-round 全面的 ever-victorious 常胜的
face-to-face 面对面的 out-and-out 彻头彻尾的
合成动词主要有以下几类:
(1)名词+动词:
sleepwalk 梦游 spoon-feed 用勺喂;灌输(知识)
water ski 滑水 proof-read 校对
(2)副词+动词:
overthrow 推翻 undergo 经历
overcharge收费过高 overhear 偷听
uphold 支持 uplift 提起,振奋
underwrite 承当,同意保证 overeat 吃得过多
(3)形容词或副词+动词:
white-wash 粉刷 blacklist 列入黑名单
ill-treat 虐待 cross-examine 盘问
backtrack 往回走 back-pedal 从……退缩
short-change 少找钱 short-circuit 发生短路
(4)其他形式的合成动词:
blow-dry 吹干 spin-dry 甩干
stir-fry 炒 deep-fry 炸
court-martial 军法审判 pooh-pooh 认为……愚蠢可笑
dilly-dally 浪费时间 tittle-tattle 闲聊
合成副词数量不多,都用作状语,如:
She'll work part-time after she has had the baby. 生过孩子之后,她将做兼职工作。
I can't give you an answer offhand . 我不能马上就给你一个答复。
She almost did all this single-handed . 这一切几乎是她一个人干的。
He returned home empty-handed . 他空着手回家了。
另外,maybe, forever, moreover, however, nevertheless, furthermore,等等,也都是合成副词。