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“Human-heartedness” refers to affinity, meaning that people are dear to each other. Confucius stated that “human-heartedness means loving others,” which is the highest level of moral cultivation of human beings. Its leading idea is to affirm the status of human beings, advocating that people should respect each other, help each other, and be friendly to each other. The ancient Chinese took “human-heartedness” as an ideal personality and a basic norm for handling various complex interpersonal relationships to seek social harmony and stability. As a Confucian idea of governance, human-heartedness refers to the political strategy of treating the people generously, doing them favors, and winning their hearts, or the philosophy of governance with compassion, sympathy, and love for others in dealing with state affairs and people’s livelihood.
Confucius’ idea of good governance was closely related to the time in which he lived. He was born in a troubled time and aspired to the ritualistic rule of the Zhou Dynasty. He lobbied the lords to stop the degeneration of the people and the state, hoping that they would pay attention to good governance, “restrain themselves and restore propriety,” abandon hegemony, and implement the rule with “human-heartedness” as the core philosophy.
Mencius followed Confucius’ thought of good governance and put forward the four principles of “human-heartedness, righteousness, propriety, and wisdom” and “goodness of human nature.” Mencius emphasized blood relations, humanity, and individuality, which, together with his people-oriented thinking, “the people are more important than the king,” enriched the Confucian system of “humane government.” In their view, “human-heartedness,” that is, the harmony of the community, was the ultimate goal of rulers in governing the state, and “rituals” and the hierarchy were used as the methods to achieve this goal, forming the charter of rulers’ governance – giving priority to rituals and justice and practicing humane government. Therefore, if a ruler wants to seek social stability and harmony, he must advocate and practice humane government, cherish the people’s strength, and practice good and virtuous politics.
Confucianism, represented by Confucius, take “human-heartedness” as its core philosophy, integrating naturalism, humanism, ethics, the doctrine of the golden mean, identification of the individual with the universe, and the unity of knowledge and action; thus, the harmony of Heaven, Earth, and Man is achieved. Human-heartedness is the highest goal of Confucius’ ideal personality and the resolution of human relationships. He believed that if people acted in accordance with the requirements of “human-heartedness,” they would realize the social ideal of “right principles of government prevailing in the kingdom.”“Human-heartedness means loving others.” ( The Analects of Confucius )The populist idea of the rulers will lead to the cultivation of the people’s good virtue. However, the principle of “filial piety and fraternal duty” is the essence of a good virtue ( The Analects of Confucius ), which regards family harmony as the basis for social harmony and stability. “To subdue one’s self and return to propriety ( ke ji fu li ) is perfect virtue. If a man can do that for one day, the whole nation will ascribe perfect virtue to him.”( The Analects of Confucius ) Confucianism advocated the use of the hierarchy– “rites” – to regulate people’s behaviors in order to achieve the goal of “human-heartedness.” Confucius also proposed a way to achieve this goal, namely, “the Doctrine of the Mean ( zhong yong ).” He said, “Emperor Shun grasped two completely different opinions, and then adopted a compromise to govern the country.” ( The Book of Rites )
Mencius explained “human-heartedness” with “mind” and applied its doctrine to the political field, forming the proposition of “good governance,” which is based on human-heartedness theoretically. Mencius believed that human-heartedness works in the inner state of mind, thus asserted, “All men have a mind which cannot bear to see the suffering of others. The ancient kings had this heart which could not stand to see the suffering of others, and, with this, operated a government which could not stand to see the suffering of the people. If, in this state of mind, you ran a government which could not endure people’s suffering, you could govern the realm as if you were turning it in the palm of your hand.” ( The Works of Mencius )
The process of practicing humane government is also the process of moving from “sternness” to “tolerance,” that is, the process of being virtuous and “putting oneself in the place of another.” “Treat the aged in your family as they should be treated, and extend this treatment to the aged of other people’s families. Treat the young in your family as they should be treated, and extend this treatment to the young of other people’s families.” ( The Works of Mencius ) That is also the process from respecting the parents to loving others.
Mencius’ doctrine of good governance is a kind of “kingly way ( wang dao )” or “kingly government,” which contracts with “tyrannical rule” sharply. Mencius believed that the practice of good governance or the “kingly way” should be a heartfelt behavior, just like Emperor Shun did, understanding the human relationships and thus acting by righteousness. In Mencius’ view, the difference between “kingly way” and “tyranny” lies in the fact that the former relies on “virtue ( de )” while the latter, on “power( li ).” Mencius’ idea of good governance is a political theory of moral idealism. The key to its realization lies in the “virtues” of the rulers and their willingness to practice good governance by “extending kindness.” The good governance advocated by Mencius also requires the ruler to make the people “serve their parents and support their wives and children” and “enjoy their life in good years and free from miseries in harsh times” ( The Works of Mencius ). These measures are the concrete contents of good governance and the “beginning of the road to true kingship” envisioned by Mencius under the guidance of the idea of “sustaining the people’s livelihood.” Mencius’ idea of good governance has been respected by later Confucians and has become the mainstream of traditional Confucian political thought.
To summarize, the connotations of good governance include:
1. The idea of the “goodness of human nature.” This is the philosophical basis for the idea of good governance. According to Mencius, human beings are born with “four senses” (the sense of compassion, the sense of shame, the sense of modesty and yielding, and the sense of right and wrong). The moral expressions of these four senses are the “four virtues” (human-heartedness, righteousness, propriety, and wisdom). Mencius believed that people were born with good nature and virtue, and that the so-called “four senses” and “four virtues” were innate, without any worldly or utilitarian reasons. They were innate senses of compassion and sympathy. Nevertheless, due to various reasons, people had lost their good nature and virtue and behaved immorally, even to the point of causing trouble to the world. Therefore, Mencius proposed to “search for the lost heart.” He said, “human-heartedness is the essence of human nature, and righteousness is the right course that people must take.” “Losing one’s heart means you sway from your initial good nature; searching for the lost heart is to regain through ethical practice of the good nature, just as one should get back the missing cattle.” The development of one’s mind, knowing human nature, and understanding Heaven ways refer to make one’s thoughts and actions conform to the moral code to which Confucianism aspires through self-examination and introspection and to achieve a state of ethical self-discipline and self-awareness. Mencius’ doctrine of sense and nature lays the theoretical foundation for his political ideas.
2. The ideal of the “great harmony of the world.” Confucius’thought originated from “human-heartedness.” “For when the people keep their several places, there will be no poverty; when harmony prevails, there will be no scarcity of people; and when there is such a contented repose, there will be no rebellious upsetting.” ( The Analects of Confucius ) Confucius spent his life traveling between the autocratic dynasty and states, hoping to convince them to move toward the kingly way and to build an ideal society in which “the world is shared by all,” instead of “a world dominated by one family.”
3. Emphasizing governance by virtue and stressing rituals and righteousness. Confucius believed that the governance of society depended on the implementation of governance by virtue and held that laws and penalties alone were not enough to realize the goal of good governance. In this regard, Mencius affirmed, “the virtuous is invincible.” ( The Works of Mencius ) In addition to governance by virtue, Confucius and Mencius also especially revered rituals and righteousness for preventing the abuse of penalties at that time in order to maintain social order and the dignity of the common people. The “rituals” advocated by Confucius was the “rituals” of human-heartedness and virtue, that is, the external code of conduct according to loyalty and tolerance.
Confucius’s idea of name rectification ( zheng ming ) is the illustration and embodiment of the virtues and rites. He advocated the rectification of names, requiring that “the rulers or superior chiefs should be virtuous,” “the ministers and other subordinates should be faithful and loyal to duty,” and “the father should be kind and the son obedient.” If these interpersonal relationships can be consistent with what has been stated above, society will naturally be stable and harmonious without any criminals and lawsuits. Mencius also promoted “righteousness” to stop the tyranny of those “profit-seeking” rulers who indiscriminately slaughtered innocent people for the sake of wealth and land. These were the ways to save the state in response to the social malpractices of that time.
4. To promote the virtuous. Confucius believed that the practice of good governance depended on the criteria of “official selection.” The future of the state is determined by the appropriateness of the selection of officials. Therefore, “selecting the virtuous and promoting the capable” is the premise of realizing the goal of “the world for all.” When his disciple Chung-kung became an official and asked him about government affairs, Confucius said, “Employ first the services of your various officers, pardon minor faults, and raise to office men of virtue and talents.” Then Chung-kung said, “How shall I know the men of virtue and talent, so that I may raise them to office?” The Master answered, “Raise to office those whom you know as to those whom you do not know, will others neglect them?” ( The Analects of Confucius ) This shows the importance Confucius attached to the virtuous and the talented. Confucius was dissatisfied with the Hereditary System of the nobility at that time, so he advocated that “the student, having completed his learning, should apply himself to be an official.” Confucius insisted that officials must be made by those who were well educated. Mencius also said, “If we appoint the virtuous and capable, and men of distinguished talents were placed in office, then all the scholars in the state will be willing to serve the government.” ( The Works of Mencius ) Therefore, promoting the virtuous and the capable is the key to implementing “good governance.”
5. Attaching great weight to education. Confucius went to the state of Wei and had a dialogue with Zan Yu (522 BC-?). Confucius observed,“How numerous are the people!” Zan Yu said, “Since they are thus numerous, what more shall be done for them?” “Enrich them” was the reply. “And when they have been enriched, what more shall be done?” Confucius said, “Teach them.” ( The Analects of Confucius )
Confucius believed that the most important political task of a state with a large population was to enrich and educate them. He traveled among the states, but he was not employed, so he failed to realize his idea of “people’s well-being.” However, he had a well-developed thought on education. He integrated cultivation, morality, and politics to cultivate virtues through edification, thus realizing his ideal of good governance. He first broke with the ancient practice of “running schools by the state( xue zai guan fu )” by founding private schools where “there should be no distinction of classes in teaching ( you jiao wu lei )” and advocated the method of “teaching according to one’s ability ( yin cai shi jiao ),” aiming to cultivate talents and “superior men ( jun zi )” with loyalty, tolerance, and good virtue in order to practice his idea of good governance.
Confucius believed that a superior man should “cultivate himself so as to give rest to others ( xiu ji an ren ),” which fully illustrates the ultimate purpose of his education. Mencius inherited Confucius’ idea of education and took the promotion of education as an essential step in implementing “good governance.”
6. Sustaining the people’s livelihood ( zhi chan hui min ). The policy of “sustaining the people’s livelihood” is also a vital part of Confucian good governance. Confucius exhorted the politicians, “To rule a country of a thousand chariots, there must be reverent attention to business, and sincerity; economy in expenditure, and love for men; and the employment of the people at the proper seasons.” Mencius shared the same view with Confucius in the economic aspect of good governance and further proposed specific agricultural economic policies.
7. The Doctrine of the Mean. Confucius attached the greatest importance to the virtuous and distinguished the gentleman from the villain by the doctrine of “never too much ( shi zhong ).” In this regard, he said, “A superman acts in accordance with the Doctrine of the Mean, but an ordinary people acts against it. Supermen do so because they observe the requirements of the golden mean; ordinary people disobey it because they have no scruples or fears.” Just as Chu Hsi (1130-1200), a great Confucian scholar in the Song Dynasty, said, “There is no fixed expression of the golden mean; it will change over time.” ( Exegesis on the Golden Mean ) To seek “timely mean” requires changing according to the time, place, event, and people to achieve the right and the best. To keep the Doctrine of the Mean, we should be impartial, generous, and moderate and avoid being too much.
The good governance of Confucianism is a complete system that regards nature, people, and society as a large and inseparable one, leading people to pursue the ideas of “the world for all when the great Tao being pursued” and “the people united as one.” Confucianism asks people to use the ideal of “human-heartedness” and the method of “the golden mean” to deal with conflicts and resolve them on the basis of recognizing contradictions, advocating mutual support, care, goodwill, mutual restraint, and understanding between people to achieve mutual benefit. In ancient societies, the idea of “good governance” had a good social foundation and certain positive elements, which became a model of governance for the Chinese people to deal with people, coordinate relationships, and maintain social stability.