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以自然为背景的博弈不是对抗自然的博弈

尽管人类预测和阻碍他者行为的努力是本书所讨论的某些动态的基础,但更根本的东西乃是作出反应的相对简单的能力。“进行对抗自然的游戏”这种说法通常是用来指这样一种形势,即其对立面是不变的。但这样说是误解了自然界:自然界实际上会对人类行为作出反应——或者更确切地说,自然的要素构成了一个系统。虽然威廉·麦克尼尔(William McNeill)在谈论“保留大灾难的偏好”时走得太远,但他确实正确地指出了这一点,即“驯服”自然力量的诸多尝试释放出了即使不是更多至少也是异类的灾难。在1993年大洪灾4年之前的写作中,他列举到:

一个水利工程的例子明显地说明了这样一种形势。在我的一生中,军队工程团沿密西西比河下游河道一直在修建精心设计的堤坝系统以控制该河的洪水。这种做法带来了人们不愿看到的后果:河流的沉积物全都聚集在堤坝之间的河床上。结果,水面年年上涨,而堤坝也不得不一再加高。在这种情况下,水量巨大的密西西比河迟早要冲决堤岸,给周遭造成巨大破坏。如果不修堤坝,让河流像我小时候那样每年春季自由地溢出并且把沉积物广泛地散布于它自然形成的冲积平原上,那么其危害就会小得多。 [69]

人们为遏止海滩被侵蚀而进行的努力同样也使问题扩大。为了保护海滩的沙子,人们建造折流坝使沙粒顺着海岸横向移动。但是,这却造成折流坝的另一边被严重侵蚀,而住在那边的人们也不得不建造他们自己的堤坝以防止那个地带被完全侵蚀掉。于是这样的过程就在整个海滩相继出现。另外一些社团,在看到各自为战的后果之后,尝试着通过修建能够削弱海浪冲击力而稳固海滩的沙岛来共同应对这一问题。但这些沙岛几乎不起作用:海滩因为不受干预,确实不再像以前那样向内陆收缩了,但是,当海浪不再能把其能量释放到自然力形成的海滩上而冲垮沙岛时,这个灾难性的失败就把取代缓慢侵蚀的暂时稳定期打破了。 [70]

近来生态学的研究也表明,变化——通常是那些不可预见的变化——远比平衡状态更为常见。即使没有人类的干预,古老的森林也很少能达到一种稳定的结构,捕食者与被捕食者不会达到稳定状态,其数量也不会按照有规律的周期变化。正如一位专家所指出的,“在你把某个种群引入到一个新地区之后,它的数量会上升并随后急剧下降,并不会保持不变。从长期来看数目会有所变动”。确实,在一批例子中,捕食者消灭了它们的猎物,然后它们自己也饿死了。 [71]

不管人类是不是系统的一部分,相互联系和突现属性界定了系统。由此而产生的一般类型的效应是下一章的主题。之后,我们将评论国际政治学中论及系统的文献,分析反馈,讨论讨价还价与联盟的变化过程,并在最后处理这样一个难题:面对产生的结果难以控制甚至难以预见的过程,人类应如何有效地行事。

注 释

[1] H.J.Muller,“One Hundred Years Without Darwinism Are Enough,” School Science and Mathematics 59(April 1959),pp.304—316;著名的古生物学家乔治·盖洛德·辛普森(George Gaylord Simpson)认为这个标题非常好,因此带着谢意地把它用作了他下面这部著作中一篇论文的标题: This View of Life:The World of an Evolutionist (New York:Harcourt,Brace,and World,1964)。达尔文主义的许多方面还没有融入哲学之中,对于这一论点,可参见Ernst Mayr,“How Biology Differs from the Physical Sciences,” in David Depew and Bruce Weber,eds., Evolution at a Crossroads:The New Biology and the New Philosophy of Science (Cambridge,Mass.:MIT Press,1986),pp.43—63。

[2] 这可能是源于根深蒂固的思维模式,参阅Jerome Bruner,Jacqueline Goodnow,and George Austin, A Study of Thinking (New York:Wiley,1956);也可参阅Nancy Henley,Robert Horsfall,and Clinton De Soto,“Goodness of Figure and Social Structure,” Psychological Review 76(March 1969),pp.194—204;Roger Shepard,“Evolution of a Mesh between Principles of the Mind and Regularities of the World,” in John Dupré,ed., The Latest on the Best:Essays on Evolution and Optimality (Cambridge,Mass.:MIT Press,1987),pp.251— 275。

[3] Charles Darwin, The Origin of Species (New York:Modern Library,1936),p.143.

[4] Kenneth Waltz, Theory of International Politics (Reading,Mass.:Addison- Wesley,1979).

[5] 对于复杂系统的理论化,我们从中期望——以及不能期望——讨论的东西,例如,可以参阅David Ehrenfeld,“The Management of Diversity:A Conservation Paradox,” in F.Herbert Bormann and Stephen Kellert,eds., Ecology,Economics,Ethics:The Broken Circle (New Haven,Conn.:Yale University Press,1991),pp.26—39;Stuart Kauffman,“Whispers from Carnot:The Origins of Order and Principles of Adaptation in Complex Non-equilibrium Systems,” in George Cowan,David Pines,and David Meltzer,eds., Complexity:Mataphors ,Models,and Reality (Reading,Mass.:Addison-Wesley,1994),pp.85— 87;David Depew and Bruce Weber, Darwinism Evolving:Systems Dynamics and the Genealogy of Natural Selection (Cambridge,Mass.:MIT Press,1995),pp.490—491。

[6] 相关的论证来自于混沌理论(chaos theory)。对于非专家(我无疑就是非专家)来说,标准的来源就是James Gleick, Chaos Theory (New York:Penguin 1988)。也可参阅Roger Lewin, Complexity:Life at the Edge of Chaos (New York:Macmillan,1992);M.Mitchell Waldrop, Complexity:The Emerging Science at the Edge of Order and Chaos (New York:Simon and Schuster,1992);Stephen Kellert, In the Wake of Chaos:Unpredictable Order in Dynamical Systems (Chicago:University of Chicago Press,1993)和David Ruelle, Chance and Chaos (Princeton,N.J.:Princeton University Press.1991)。关于进化过程中偶然性的重要意义,可参阅Stephen Jay Gould, Wonderful Life (New York:Norton,1989)和Depew and Weber, Darwinism Evolving 。针对一些理论家的比较极端的主张的批评,可以参阅John Horgan,“From Complexity to Perplexity,” Scientific American, June 1995,pp.104—109。

[7] John Maynard Smith, Did Darwin Get it Right? Essays on Games,Sex,and Evolution (New York:Chapman & Hall,1989),p.226.

[8] Garrett Hardin,“The Cybernetics of Competition,” Perspectives in Biology and Medicine 7(Autumn 1963),p.77.

[9] 相似或部分一致的定义,可参阅:Herbert Simon, The Sciences of the Artificial ,2d ed.(Cambridge,Mass.:MIT Press,1981),pp.195,209—210; Anatol Rapoport,“Systems Analysis:General Systems Theory,” International Encyclopaedia of the Social Sciences ,vol.15(New York:Free Press,1968),p.453; Ludwig von Bertalanffy, General Systems Theory:Foundations,Development,Applications (New York:Braziller,1986),p.55; George Klir,“The Polyphonic General Systems Theory,” in Klir,ed., Trends in General Systems Theory (New York:Wiley,1972),p.1; Howard Odum and Elisabeth Odum, Energy Basis for Man and Nature, 2d ed.(New York:McGraw-Hill,1981),p.5; Warren Weaver,“Science and Complexity,” American Scientist 36(October 1948),pp.538—539; Kenneth Boulding, The World as a Total System (Beverly Hills,Calif.:Sage,1985),p.9; W.Ross Ashby, Design for a Brain ,2d ed.(New York:Wiley,1960),p.16; Thomas Hughes, Networks of Power:Electrification in Western Society, 1880—1930(Baltimore,Md.:Johns Hopkins University Press,1983),pp.5—6,20—22; James Miller, Living Systems (New York:McGraw-Hill,1978),pp.16—19。也可参阅Ludwig von Bertalanffy and Anatol Rapoport,eds., Yearbook of the Society for the Advancement of General Systems Theory, vol.1(Ann Arbor.University of Michigan Mental Health Research Institute,1956)和Robert Flood, Liberating Systems Theory (New York:Plenum,1990),chapter 5。一些国际政治学者所提出的有所不同的定义,可参阅Inis Claude, Power and International Relations (New York:Random House,1962),p.42; Stanley Hoffmann,“International Systems and International Law,” in Klaus Knorr and Sidney Verba,eds., The International System (Princeton,N.J.:Princeton University Press,1961),pp.207—208; Morton Kaplan, System and Process in International Politics (New York:Wiley,1957),pp.4—6; Kaplan, Towards Professionalism in International Theory (New York:Free Press,1979),p.96; Hedley Bull, The Anarchical Society (New York:Columbia University Press,1977),pp.8—16; Waltz, Theory of International Politics ,p.79; Robert Gilpin, War and Change in World Politics (New York:Cambridge University Press,1981),pp.25—29。在绝大多数系统中,反馈起着至关重要的作用,它将是后面的章节中要加以讨论的问题。不过,没有反馈的系统也是可能存在的。

为了某些目的,按照这样的标准对系统进行划分,诸如有组织的与紊乱的、开放的与封闭的、简单的与复杂的、等级制的与无政府的、寡头垄断的与自由竞争的,具有重要意义。参见Harlan Wilson,“Complexity as a Theoretical Problem:Wider Perspectives in Political Theory,” in Todd La Porte,ed., Organized Complexity (Princeton,N.J.:Princeton University Press,1975),pp.281—288和Jack Snyder,“Introduction,” in Jack Snyder and Robert Jervis,eds., Coping with Complexity in the International System (Boulder,Colo.:Westview Press,1993),pp.6—13。然而,对于我的大部分分析而言,这些区分不是至关重要的。

[10] 关于近来的讨论,可参阅Robert Pool,“Chaos Theory:How Big an Advance?” Science 245(July 9,1989),p.26。

[11] Karl Sigmund, Games of Life:Explorations in Ecology,Evolution,and Behaviour (New York:Oxford University Press,1993),p.52.

[12] 对于“复杂的适应性系统”(complex adaptive systems)的研究清楚地揭示了这一点。可参阅Joshua Epstein and Robert Axtell, Growing Artificial Societies:Social Science from the Bottom Up (Washington,D.C.:the Brookings Institution,1996); John Holland, Adaptation in Natural and Artificial Systems (Cambridge,Mass.:MIT Press,1992); Holland, Hidden Order:How Adaption Builds Complexity (Reading,Mass.:Addison-Wesley,1995); Nigel Gilbert and Rosaria Conte,eds., Artificial Societies:The Computer Simulation of Social Life (London:University College London Press,1995); David Lane,“Artificial Worlds and Economics”(unpublished,Santa Fe Institute paper No.92—09—048)。这一观点也可见于Darwin, Origin of Species ,especially pp.196—202,374;也可参阅Thomas Schelling, Micromotives and Macrobehavior (New York:Norton,1978),passim,especially pp.147—155。

[13] 有关的一组事件,可参阅Edward Tenner, Why Things Bite Back:Technology and the Revenge of Unintended Consequences (New York:Knopf,1996),p.89。从系统效应的角度对海事安全进行的讨论,可参阅Charles Perrow, Normal Accidents (New York:Basic Books,1984),chapter 6。我的思考受到了这本著作的极大影响。与汽车安全设备有关的这种效应的证据,见本书第二章第63—64页。

[14] R.J.Crampton, The Hollow Detente:Anglo-German Relations in the Balkans, 1911—1914(Atlantic Highlands,N.J.:Humanities Press,1980),p.131.相似的事例在18世纪末比比皆是。具体例子可参阅Paul Schroeder, The Transformation of European Politics,1763—1848 (New York:Oxford University Press,1994),以及T.C.W.Blanning, The Origins of the French Revolutionary Wars (London:Longman,1986)。

最早将生态学观点运用到国际政治学中的学者指出,当要素相互联系的时候,“环境的某一部分所发生的任何实质的变化都会给其他部分造成重要的、通常是令人不安的、有时又极具破坏性的后果”(Harold and Margaret Sprout, An Ecological Paradigm for the Study of International Politics [Princeton University,Center for International Studies,Research Memorandum no.30,March 1968],p.55)。这方面更近一些的研究见James Rosenau, Turbulence in World Politics (Princeton,N.J.:Princeton University Press,1990)。

[15] Paul Kennedy,“The Logic of Appeasement,” Times Literary Supplement ,May 28,1982,p.585.

[16] 正如一位历史学家所指出的,“如果一个部落的敌人拥有自己所没有的武器,其选择是很少的,而且都是不愉快的。它不可避免地要同竞争者开战。自欧洲人进入之后,敌意是如此迅速地产生,又是如此激烈地延续着,以至于观察者们倾向于认为这些战争不过是部落间常有的一种关系,却不知道他们自己也改变了这些关系”(George Hunt, The Wars of the Iroquois [Madison:University of Wisconsin Press,1940],p.19)。定居东非的欧洲移民所碰见的狮子具有吃人的倾向,解释这种现象的论证可以追溯到更早时期欧洲人在该大陆其他地方的活动所导致的生态变化。可参阅Craig Packer,“Coping with a Lion Killer,” Natural History 105(June 1996),p.16。生态学家有时通过从一个地区迁移某个物种的成员以追踪各种关系,尽管这些试验能在多大程度上模拟自然过程尚不完全清楚。参阅Stuart Pimm, The Balance of Nature? Ecological Issues in the Conservation of Species and Communities (Chicago:University of Chicago Press,1991),chapter 12。

[17] P.J.V.Rolo, Entente Cordiale (New York:St.Martin's,1969),p.121.

[18] 希特勒这个决定后面的推理过程仍不清楚。对近期研究的简要概述可参阅Justus Doenecke,“U.S.Policy and the European War,1939—1941,” Diplomatic History 19(Fall 1995),pp.682—683。

[19] 进一步的讨论可参阅Glenn Snyder and Paul Diesing, Conflict Among Nations (Princeton,N.J.:Princeton University Press,1977),pp.426—427和后面的第六章。

[20] Hardin,“The Cybernetics of Competition,” pp.79—80.重点标记是后来加的。约翰·杜威大概对此不会感到吃惊,他说:“只盯着所喜欢的单一结果不放,而不注意其他任何可能的……结果,这是一种固执的愚蠢。”John Dewey, Human Nature and Conduct (New York:Henry Holt,1922),pp.228—229.

[21] Jonathan Weisman,“Tilting at Windmills,” Wildlife Conservation 97(January/February1994),pp.52—57; Lindsey Gruson,“Problem with Clean Harbor:Creatures Devour Waterfront,” New York Times ,June 27,1993; Aaron Wildavsky, Searching for Safety (New Brunswick,N.J.:Transaction Books,1988); Perrow, Normal Accidents ;关于“被改变”的施动者的经典案例可参见J.C.Masterman, The Double-Cross System in the War of 1939 to 1945 (New Haven,Conn.:Yale University press,1972); Packer,“Coping with a Lion Killer,” pp.14— 17; William Stevens,“Acid Rain Efforts Found to Undercut Them- selves,” New York Times ,January 27,1994; Richard Kerr,“Study Unveils Climate Cooling Caused by Pollutant Haze,” Science 268(May 12,1995),p.802; Kerr,“It's Official:First Glimmer of Greenhouse Warning Seen,” ibid.270(December 8,1995),pp.1565—1567; Nancy Langston, Forest Dreams,Forest Nightmares:The Paradox of Old Growth in the Inland West (Seattle:University of Washington Press,1995),pp.148—150,292—294; “You Want Hair,Get a Prescription,” Aspen Daily News ,July 28,1994(最终,美国食品及药物管理局决定允许该药更自由地销售,参阅“Hair-Growth Drug to Be Sold over the Counter,” New York Times ,February 13,1996); Leon Sigal, Fighting to a Finnish:The Politics of War Termination in the United States and Japan,1945 (Ithaca,N.Y.:Cornell University Press,1988),pp.215—216。相信食用没有经过杀虫剂处理的食物有益健康的那些人,会对下面这篇文章有兴趣:Jane Brody,“Strong Views on Origins of Cancer,” New York Times ,July 5,1994。不过,正如我们将在本书第二章和第七章所讨论的那样,并非所有意外的后果都是人们所不愿意看到的。

[22] 转引自Larry Berman,“Coming to Grips with Lyndon Johnson's War,” Diplomatic History 17(Fall 1993),p.525。

[23] David Holloway, Stalin and the Bomb (New Haven,Conn.:Yale University Press,1994),p.272.

[24] Glenn Snyder,“The Balance of Power and the Balance of Terror,” in Paul Seabury,ed., The Balance of Power (San Francisco:Chandler,1965),pp.184— 201.

[25] Walter Millis,ed., The Forrestal Diaries (New York:Viking,1951),p.526; William Stueck, The Korean War (Princeton,N.J.:Princeton University Press,1995),p.6;转引自Thomas Friedman,“It's a Mad,Mad,Mad,Mad World Money Market,” New York Times ,May 8,1994。正如这些例子所表明的,人们的预期——部分来讲是基于对他者预期的相信——对于系统的动态过程是重要的。

[26] 对于文献的出色的——和批判性的——讨论与回顾,可参阅D.C.Phillips, Holistic Thought in Social Science (Stanford,Calif:Stanford University Press,1976)。

对于自组织系统(self-organizing systems)的讨论也是相关的,可参阅Heinz Von Foerster and George Zopf,Jr.,eds., Principles of Self-Organization (New York:Pergamon Press,1962); Ilya Pregogine and Isabelle Stenger, Order out of Chaos:Man's New Dialogue with Nature (New York:Bantam Books,1984); Per Bak and Kan Chen,“Self-Organized Criticality,” Scientific American ,January 1991,pp.46—53; Stuart Kauffman, The Origins of Order:Self-Organization and Selection in Evolution (New York:Oxford University Press,1993);更容易找到的是考夫曼(Kauffman)的 At Home in the Universe:The Search for Laws of Self-Organization and Complexity (New York:Oxford University Press,1995)。对于有机体复杂性的含义和发展的出色的一般性讨论,可参见John Bonner, The Evolution of Complexity (Princeton,N.J.:Princeton University Press,1988)。有关经济学的文献,可参阅有Paul Krugman, The Self-Organizing Economy (Cambridge,Mass:Blackwell,1966)。其中的某些论证像是对自由市场的标准的辩护[例如弗里德里希·哈耶克(Friedrich Hayek)的著作],然而,市场的形成和维护实际上是需要强有力的权威和有意识的努力的。

[27] 一批持续发展系统理论的学者,诸如阿纳托尔·拉波波特(Anatol Rapoport)和路德维希·冯·贝塔朗菲(Ludwig von Bertalanffy)是作为生物学家而发迹的,这一点并不令人奇怪。可参阅Arthur Koestler and J.R.Smythies,eds., Beyond Reductionism:New Perspectives in the Life Sciences (Boston:Beacon Press,1969); Francisco Ayala and Theodosius Dobzhansky,eds., Studies in the Philosophy of Biology:Reduction and Related Problems (Berkeley:University of California Press,1975); Richard Levins and Richard Lewontin, The Dialectical Biologist (Cambridge,Mass.:Harvard University Press,1985); Michael Ruse, Philosophy of Biology Today (Albany:State University of New York Press,1988),chapter 3; Depew and Weber,eds., Evolution at a Crossroads ,especially the chapters by Ayala and Mayr; Timothy Allen and Thomas Hoekstra, Toward a Unified Ecology (New York:Columbia University Press,1992),pp.195—200。也可参阅C.Dyke, The Evolutionary Dynamics of Complex Systems (New York:Oxford University Press,1988); Stanley Salthe, Development and Evolution:Complexity and Change in Biology (Cambridge,Mass.:MIT Press,1993),pp.200— 218; John Searle,“The Mystery of Consciousness,” New York Review of Books 42(November 2,1995),pp.60—66。其他学科中有关整体主义与还原主义的论点,可参见Ernest Nagel,“Whole,Sums,and Organic Unities,” Philosophical Studies 3(February 1952),pp.17—32; Kyriakos Kontopoulos, The Logics of Social Structure (New York:Cambridge University Press,1993),passim,and especially pp.14—41; Alan Garfinkel, Forms of Explanation:Rethinking the Questions in Social Theory (New Haven,Conn.:Yale University Press,1981),chapter 2; Daniel Little, Varieties of Social Explanation (Boulder:Westview,1991),chapter 8; Frank Golley, A History of the Ecosystem Concept in Ecology:More Than the Sum of the Parts (New Haven,Conn.:Yale University Press,1993),passim,and especially pp.190—195; John Bennett, The Ecological Transition:Cultural Anthropology and Human Adaptation (New York:Pergamon,1976); Geoffrey Hodgson, Economics and Evolution:Bringing Life Back into Economics (Ann Arbor:University ef Michigan Press,1993),passim,and especially chapter 15。较早对经济学研究忽视系统方法的批评可参见Sidney Schoeffler, The Failures of Economics:A Diagnostic Study (Cambridge,Mass:Harvard University Press 1995)。关于还原主义与混沌状态,可参见Kellert, In the Wake of Chaos ,pp.88—90,114—118。

[28] 例如,可参阅Paul Watzlawick,Janet Beavin,and Don Jackson, Pragmatics of Human Communication:A Study of Interactional Patterns,Pathologies,and Paradoxes (New York:Norton,1967); Paul Watzlawick and John Weakland,eds., The Interactional View (New York:Norton 1977); George Vaillant, Adaptation to Life (Boston:Little,Brown,1977); David Magnusson and Norman Endler,eds., Personality at the Crossroads (Hillsdale,N.J.:Earlbaum,1977); David Magnusson,“Personality Development from an Interactional Perspective,” in Lawrence Pervin,ed., Handbook of Personality:Theory and Research (New York:Guilford Press,1990),chapter 8; Albert Bandura, Social Foundations of Thought and Action (Engle wood Cliffs,N.J.:Prentice Hall,1986); Sandra Scarr,“Developmental Theories for the 1990s:Development and Individual Differences,” Child Development 63(February 1992),pp.1—19。

[29] Emile Durkheim, The Rules of Sociological Method (Glencoe,Ill.:Free Press,1938),p.xlvii.社会学中迥然不同的研究都具有这个共同的认识,可参见Walter Buckley, Sociology and Modern Systems Theory (Englewood Cliffs,N.J.:Prentice Hall,1967); Jonathan Turner, A Theory of Social Interaction (Stanford,Calif.:Stanford University Press,1988); Tamotsu Shibutani, Social Processes (Berkeley:University of California Press,1986); David Knoke, Political Networks:The Structural Perspective (New York:Cambridge University Press 1990)。社会学是一种或一组类似于系统分析的方法,也是一种辩证法的乡土训练,参见Kenneth Boulding, A Primer on Social Dynamics (New York:Free Press,1970),chapters 3 and 4,以及Louis Schneider,“Dialectic in Sociology,” American Sociological Review 36(August 1971),pp.667—678。相关的还有许多研究“微观-宏观联系”(micro-macro link)的著作,例如,可参见由杰弗里·亚历山大(Jeffrey Alexander)及其他学者合编的以此为题的著作(University of California Press,1987)。更近一些,有关人造生命和人造世界的研究已经集中于这样的问题,即看起来不协调的单个行为是如何造就突现属性并受这种属性影响的。参见注释13所列的文献。

[30] Kurt Lewin, Resolving Social Conflicts (New York:Harper & Brothers,1948),p.73.

[31] 参阅批判性讨论,见Scott Sagan, The Limits of Safety:Organizations,Accidents,and Nuclear Weapons (Princeton,N.J.:Princeton University Press,1993),pp.19—21。

[32] 转引自R.J.Apple,Jr.,“Margaret Thatcher:A Choice,Not an Echo,” New York Times Magazine ,April 29,1979,p.36; Kindleberger, The World in Depression (Berkeley:University of California Press,1973),p.305。日益增多的白人对相邻的少数族群抱有宽容的态度,有可能导致社会呈现隔离状态,对这一问题的成熟论述,可参见Schelling, Micromotives ,pp.162—164。关于“没有秩序维护者,秩序也能推行”的观点,参见Waltz, Theory of International Politics ,p.77;还可见p.64。

[33] The Federalist Papers (London:Penguin,1987),p.336.

[34] Francisco Ayala,“Biological Reductionism:The Problem and Some Answers,” in F.Eugene Yates,ed., Self-Organizing Systems (New York:Plenum,1987),p.318.

[35] Reuben Ablowitz,“The Theory of Emergence,” Philosophy of Science 6(January 1939),pp.2—3.

[36] Perrow, Normal Accidents ,p.172.即使是理解个别特性,也需要了解系统整体的属性,对这一问题的清楚讨论,可参见Stephen Jay Gould, Full House (New York:Harmony Books,1996)。

[37] 我对马克·布莱思(Mark Blyth)在这一点上所作的讨论表示感谢。华尔兹的系统理论也具有微观基础。不过,他的分析是以系统还是以个体行为体作为关注点,学者们的看法不一,因此不能将我们对问题的关注引向深入。可参见马丁·霍利斯(Martin Hollis)、史蒂夫·史密斯(Steve Smith)和亚历山大·温特(Alexander Wendt)所作的讨论,见于 Review of International Studies 17(October 1991),pp.383—410 and 18(April 1992),pp.181—185。

[38] Peter Gourevich,“The Second Image Reversed,” International Organization 32(Autumn 1978),pp.881—912.

[39] Origin of Species ,p.61.

[40] 这是下面这本著作的主题:Perrow, Normal Accidents

[41] 转引自Arthur Daley,“Out of the Hat,” New York Times ,March 26,1969;也可参阅Lewis Thomas,“On Meddling,” in Thomas, The Medusa and the Snail (New York:Viking,1979),pp.110—111。在新近的一则新闻报道标题中也表达了相同的观点,参见R.W.Apple,Jr.,“Line-Item Veto Would Begin Voyage into a Vast Unknown,” New York Times ,March 27,1995。下面的观点在生态学中是常见的:“管理者对森林的改变越多,他们对于其后变化路径的预测就越少……[尽管]管理者对森林的改变都是基于这样的目标,即让未来趋势更易预见。”(Langston, Forest Dreams ,p.227.)

[42] Jay Forrester, Urban Dynamics (Cambridge,Mass.:MIT Press,1969).这一观点存在一些错误。其中最为明显的就是,在系统的背景之下,城市却被当做是一个自我封闭的世界。实际上,一个城市的所作所为的结果,会影响其他城市的政策,并且会受到这种政策的影响。(关于这一点,可参阅Schelling, Micromotives ,p.69。)福里斯特的一般性方法能够使家庭手工业产生,这一点可以关注下面这本杂志: Systems Dynamics Review 。对福里斯特的方法的最著名而且最有争议性的运用可见于Donella Meadows et al., The Limits to Growth (New York:Universe Books,1972)。

[43] Charles Elton, Animal Ecology (New York:Macmillan,1927),pp.54—55,转引自Hardin,“The Cybernetics of Competition,” p.77。对于一个地区引入物种的许多例子的评论,可参见Tenner, Why Things Bite Back ,chapters 6—7。

[44] 二战以后对于盟国轰炸行动及替代办法的效果的争论与当年的争论一样激烈。在这里,我依据的是Alfred Mierzejewski, The Collapse of the German War Economy (Chapel Hill:University of North Carolina Press,1988)。他发现,当时攻击德国运输网络的主要倡导者是索利·朱克曼(Solly Zuckerman)——一位“将问题作为整体看待而把单个要素视作完整有机体的组成部分”(ibid.,p.81)的动物学家。关于系统的脆弱性和干扰在整个组织中扩散的问题,参阅Chris Demchak, Military Organizations,Complex Machines:Modernization in the U.S.Armed Services (Ithaca,N.Y.:Cornell University Press,1991)。

[45] 关于松与紧相伴生的一般性讨论,参见Perrow, Normal Accidents ,pp.89— 96。

[46] 相关的出色评论可参阅Schroeder, Transformation of European Politics ,especially pp.10,48。这一动态过程还意味着我们不能根据行为推断意图:任何或者说所有政治家都喜欢一个依据规范与正义治理的世界而不是一个权力政治支配的世界,但却会依据后者的训导行事。

[47] 生态学和国际政治经济学中的相似例子,可参见Langston, Forest Dreams ,p.277; Giulio Gallarotti, The Anatomy of an International Monetary Regime:The Classical Gold Standard,1880—1914 (New York:Oxford University Press,1995)。

[48] 参阅Jan Hoffman,“Court Weighs Expanding Scope of Murder Charge,” New York Times ,January 9,1994; Joseph Fried,“5 Charged With Murder in Crash Fatal to Officer,” ibid.,April 29,1994(也可参阅Joe Sexton,“Parolee Faces Murder Charge in Queens Fire,” ibid.,January 2,1996)。对相关问题的有趣讨论,参阅Linda Greenhouse,“High Court Narrows Definition of What ‘Using' a Gun Means,” ibid.,December 7,1995。

[49] Origin of Species ,p.59.达尔文同样也解释了“在世界的某些地区昆虫如何决定了牲畜的存在”(ibid.,p.58)。也可参看关于坦桑尼亚狮子感染犬热病的来源的叙述,见于Packer,“Coping with a Lion Killer”。

[50] 关于“联系”的相关分类,可参阅Ernst Haas,“Why Collaborate:Issue-Linkage and International Regimes,” World Politics 32(April 1980),pp.357—405; Kenneth Oye, Economic Discrimination and Political Exchange:World Political Economy in the 1930s and the 1980s (Princeton,N.J.:Princeton University Press,1992); Arthur Stein, Why Nations Cooperate:Circumstance and Choice in International Politics (Ithaca,N.Y.:Cornell University Press,1990),chapter 2。也可参阅Kenneth Boulding, Ecodynamics:A New Theory of Societal Evolution (Beverly Hills,Calif.:Sage,1978); John Kroll,“The Complexity of Interdependence,” International Studies Quarterly 37(September 1993),pp.321—348; Thomas Schelling,“A Framework for the Evaluation of Arms-Control Proposals,” Daedalus 104(Summer 1975),pp.187—200。

[51] Michael Brown, Flying Blind:The Politics of the U.S.Strategic Bomber Program (Ithaca,N.Y.:Cornell University Press,1992).较早的各种武器同样也形成了一个系统,因而同样也受到了系统的限制。参见Stanley Sandler, The Emergence of the Modern Capital Ship (Newark:University of Delaware Press,1979),pp.154—155,234—235。

[52] Walter McDougall, France's Rhineland Diplomacy,1914—1924 (Princeton,N.J.:Princeton University Press,1978),pp.128—129.

[53] Glenn Snyder, Deterrence and Defense (Princeton,N.J.:Princeton University Press,1961),pp.31—40.近来有关的讨论可参见Michael Desch, When the Third World Matters:Latin America and the United States Grand Strategy (Baltimore,Md.:Johns Hopkins University Press,1993)。

[54] Ronald Robinson and John Gallagher with Alice Denny, Africa and the Victorians (New York:St.Martin's,I967).

[55] John Galbraith,“The Turbulent Frontier' as a Factor in British Expansion,” Comparative Studies in Society and History 2(October 1968),pp.150—168.尽管认为美国的越南政策在很大程度上可以通过这种方式加以解释的陈旧信念可能是不正确的,但相似的动态过程还是能够诱使政治家们深陷其中,从而比原先设想更深地卷入冒险之中。对于以色列的某些决策者而言,这一过程在1982年以色列入侵黎巴嫩期间发挥了作用。参见Avner Yaniv, Dilemmas of Security:Politics,Strategy,and the Israeli Experience in Lebanon (New York:Oxford University Press,1987),pp.110—127。相关的还有后面将会讨论的由有限度的地区一体化带来的更具积极影响的良性联系。

[56] Gary Marx, Undercover:Police Surveillance in America (Berkeley:University of California Press,1988).

[57] Thomas Schelling, Arms and Influence (New Haven,Conn.:Yale University Press,1966),p.55.

[58] 转引自J.L.Garvin, The Life of Joseph Chamberlain ,vol.3, Empire and World Policy (London:Macmillan,1934),pp.213—214。

[59] John Harvey,ed., The Diplomatic Diaries of Oliver Harvey,1937—1940 (New York:St.Martin's,1970),pp.425—426.亨利·基辛格(Henry Kissinger)基于有些不同的理由而得出了相似的论点:“一个将事件‘联系’起来的概念框架乃是[对外政策]的基本工具。缺乏联系,确切地说会导致行动自由的对立面;政策制定者在没有固定边界的压力的冲击下,不得不对狭隘的利益作出反应。”( White House Years ,[Boston:Little,Brown,1979],p.130.)

[60] 关于“承诺”的经典的讨论,参阅Thomas Schelling, The Strategy of Conflict (Cambridge,Mass.:Harvard University Press,1960)。

[61] 国务卿万斯(Vance)曾解释说,卡特政府是小心翼翼地把对扎伊尔的沙巴省的入侵作为“一个非洲的——而不是东西方阵营之间的——问题”加以处理。参见Cyrus Vance, Hard Choices:Critical Years in America's Foreign Policy (New York:Simon and Schuster,1983),pp.70—71。关于信号去耦(the decoupling of signals)的一般问题,参见Robert Jervis, The Logic of Images in International Relations ,2d ed.(New York:Columbia University Press,1989),pp.142—165。有时候,相容性(consistency)的发展是由于人们都相信他们与他人之间 应该 相容,例如有关“滑坡”(slippery slopes)的论证。

[62] 先例和关于先例的信念并没有得到足够的注意:参见Elizabeth Kier and Jonathan Mercer,“Setting Precedents in Anarchy:Military Intervention and Weapons of Mass Destruction,” International Security 20(Spring 1996),pp.77—106。有一种观点认为,允许挪威利用国际条约的漏洞去捕杀鲸鱼的做法将会导致对非洲野生动物的杀戮,见这样的政治广告:“挪威屠杀鲸鱼的下一个牺牲品?”(“The Next Victim of Norway's Whale Slaughter?” New York Times ,May 8,1993.)关于相互联系于何时何地要求当今的美国进行干预的平衡的讨论,参见James Davis and Jack Snyder,“Projecting Power Abroad:An Indirect Approach,” in Charles Hermann,ed., American Defense Annual, 1994(Lexington,Mass.:Lexington Books,1994),pp.129—145。

[63] Paul Schroeder, Metternich's Diplomacy at its Zenith,1820—1823 (Westport,Conn.:Greenwood Press,1969),p.126; also see pp.89—90.

[64] 转引自Charles Gati, The Bloc That Failed:Soviet-East European Relations in Transition (Bloomington:Indiana University Press,1990),p.47。

[65] 转引自John Lewis Gaddis, Strategies of Containment (New York:Oxford University Press,1982),pp.63—64。

[66] James Joll, The Origins of the First World War (London:Longman,1984),p.82.

[67] Michael Carley,“French Intervention in Russia,” Journal of Modern History 48(September 1976),p.432.

[68] Akira Iriye,“The Role of the United States Embassy in Tokyo,” in Dorothy Borg and Shumpei Ikamoto,eds., Pearl Harbor as History (New York:Columbia University Press,1973),p.126;也可参阅Iriye, After Imperialism (New York:Atheneum,1969),pp.87—88,222—223。入江昭(Iriye)认为:美国在20世纪20年代同样也相信,它的对华政策不会影响到它与日本的关系,远东事务可以与世界政治的其他地区的事务相分离。参见ibid.pp.185,259。

[69] William McNeill,“Control and Catastrophe in Human Affairs,” Daedalus ,Winter 1989,pp.1—2.正如一位专家所指出的,“河流系统具有一种自我调节方式以应对人类的操控……是经由一种无法完全预见的途径”[詹姆斯·特里普(James Tripp)语]。转引自William Stevens,“The High Risks of Denying Rivers Their Flood Plains,” New York Times ,July 20,1993。

[70] 参阅Wallace Kaufman and Orrin Pilkey,Jr., The Beaches Are Moving (Durham,N.C.:Duke University Press,1983); Robert Dolan,“Barrier Dune System along the Outer Ranks of North Carolina,” Science 176(April 21,1972),pp.286—288。

[71] William Stevens,“New Eye on Nature:The Real Constant Is Eternal Turmoil,” New York Times ,July 31,1990; Daniel Botkin, Discordant Harmonies:A New Ecology for the Twenty-first Century (New York:Oxford University Press,1990); Allen and Hoekstra, Toward a Unified Ecology; Pimm, Balance of Nature? ,chapter 6;也可参阅Andrew Read and Paul Harvey,“Evolving in a Dynamic World,” Science 260(June 18,1993),pp.1760—1762; Alan Hastings and Kevin Higgins,“Persistence of Transients in Spatially Structured Ecological Models,” ibid.263(February 25,1994),pp.1133—1136; Anne Simon Moffat,“Biodiversity Is a Boon to Ecosystems,Not Species,” ibid.271(March 15,1996),p.1497。 yvMoW7JoU5GtyeC/b6iK9shwfdOG6VHDOgpfj4ZjM7TvjssyYDcJo6rIx6wCA3Xz

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