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十二

古巴导弹危机40年以后,另一个小说家杨·马泰尔(Yann Martel)发表了小说《少年Pi的奇幻漂流》( Life of Pi )。这部小说虚构了一个不太可能发生的故事,故事说的是一艘救命船是如何差点成为死亡船的。 [72] 小说中的主要角色是一个男孩和一只孟加拉虎,他们都经历了一场沉船事故,都同时爬上一条很小的救生艇寻求生还,小艇在太平洋上漂泊。小孩和老虎之间没有共同语言,他们之间不可能有理性的沟通,但是,他们之间有共同的利益,即老虎需要小孩抓鱼给它吃,小孩需要用鱼把老虎喂饱,这样自己才不会被老虎吃掉。小孩和老虎达成共识,都存活下来。

这是一个冷战寓言吗?马泰尔是不是把这部小说当作一个冷战寓言来写并不重要,重要的是一部好的小说可以激发读者的联想,尽管读者联想出来的东西并不是小说作者在创作小说时所预期的读者反应。核武器的作用就是:它使不同国家都认识到一点,即尽管它们没有共同的语言,没有共同的意识形态,没有共同的利益,但它们都有共同的需要生存的愿望,它们制造了核武器这样一只老虎,它们就必须学会如何同这只老虎一块生存。


[1] Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States:Harry S.Truman ,1950(Washington:Government Printing Office,1965),p.727.

[2] 参见他关于德累斯顿轰炸的经典小说 Slaughterbouse - Five (New York:Delacorte Press,1969).

[3] 这些数据来自the Britannica Online entry on the Korean War.

[4] Bernard Brodie,“War in the Atomic Age,”in Brodie,ed., The Absolute Weapon:Atomic Power and World Order (New York:Harcourt,1946),pp.33-34.

[5] Thucydides, History of the Peloponnesian War ,translated by Rex Warner(New York:Penguin,1972),p.48.没有人知道有多少人在伯罗奔尼撒战争中死亡,但是我的耶鲁同事、研究伯罗奔尼撒战争最杰出的历史学家唐纳德·卡根统计出了这个大概的死亡人数。第一次世界大战和第二次世界大战的死亡人数来自 Britannica Online .

[6] Carl von Clausewitz, On War ,edited and translated by Michael Howard and Peter Paret(Princeton:Princeton University Press,1976),p.87.

[7] See Kai Bird and Martin J.Sherwin, American Prometheus:The Triumph and Tragedy of J.Robert Oppenheimer (New York:Knopf,2005),pp.221-22.

[8] Diary entries,July 16,1945,and September 26,1946,in Robert H.Ferrell,ed., Off the Record:The Private Papers of Harry S.Truman (New York:Harper & Row,1980),pp.52,99.在回顾杜鲁门对核武器看法的变化时,我特别参考了S.David Broscious,“Longing for International Control,Banking on American Superiority:Harry S.Truman’s Approach to Nuclear Weapons,”in John Lewis Gaddis,Philip H.Gordon,Ernest R.May,and Jonathan Rosenberg,eds., Cold War Statesmen Confront the Bomb:Nuclear Diplomacy since 1945(New York:Oxford University Press,1999),pp.15-38.

[9] David E.Lilienthal journal,July 21,1948,in The Journals of David E.Lilienthal:The Atomic Energy Years ,1945-1950(New York:Harper & Row,1964),p.391.

[10] 内战的死亡人数来自 Britannica Online .关于索姆河战役,参见John Keegan, The Face of Battle:A Study of Agincourt,Waterloo,and the Somme (New York:Viking,1976),p.260.关于第二次世界大战中的战略轰炸,参见Richard Overy, Why the Allies Won (New York:Norton,1996),pp.101-33.

[11] James V.Forrestal diary,July 15,1948,in Walter Millis,ed., The Forrestal Diaries (New York:Viking,1951),p.458.

[12] Vladislav M.Zubok,“Stalin and the Nuclear Age,”in Gaddis, et al .,eds., Cold War Statesmen Confront the Bomb ,p.54.

[13] Lilienthal journal,February 9,1949,in The Journals of David E.Lilienthal:The Atomic Energy Years ,p.464.

[14] Lilienthal journal,May 18,1948,in The Journals of David E.Lilienthal:The Atomic Energy Years ,p.342.See also Zubok,“Stalin and the Nuclear Age,”p.52.

[15] Milovan Djilas, Conversations with Stalin ,translated by Michael B.Petrovich(New York:Harcourt,Brace & World,1962),p.153.

[16] Zubok,“Stalin and the Nuclear Age,”p.55;John Lewis Gaddis, The Long Peace:Inquiries into the History of the Cold War (New York:Oxford University Press,1987),pp.111-12.关于苏联原子弹工程的花费,参见David Holloway, Stalin and the Bomb:The Soviet Union and Atomic Energy ,1939-1956(New Haven:Yale University Press,1994),pp.172-95.

[17] John Lewis Gaddis, We Now Know:Rethinking Cold War History (New York:Oxford University Press,1997),p.91;Zubok,“Stalin and the Nuclear Age,”p.58.

[18] Sergei N.Goncharov,John W.Lewis,and XueLitai, Uncertain Partners:Stalin,Mao,and the Korean War (Stanford:Stanford University Press,1993),p.69.

[19] The interview,with Alexander Werth,appeared in Pravda on September 25,1946.

[20] Holloway, Stalin and the Bomb ,p.264.

[21] 这些引文分别来自Zubok,“Stalin and the Nuclear Age,”p.56,and Simon Sebag Montefiore, Stalin:The Court of the Red Tsar (New York:Knopf,2004),p.601.

[22] “NRDC Nuclear Notebook:Global Nuclear Stockpiles 1945-2002,” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists ,58(November/December,2002),102-3,also available at:http://www.thebulletin.org/issues/nukenotes/ndo2nukenote.html.

[23] 有关这个问题的进一步论述,参见Gaddis, The Long Peace ,p.116.

[24] William Stueck, Rethinking the Korean War:A New Diplomatic and Military History (Princeton:Princeton University Press,2002),p.124.See also Roger Dingman,“Atomic Diplomacy During the Korean War,” International Security ,13(Winter,1988/89),50-91.

[25] William Stueck, Rethinking the Korean War:A New Diplomatic and Military History (Princeton:Princeton University Press,2002),p.124.See also Roger Dingman,“Atomic Diplomacy During the Korean War,” International Security ,13(Winter,1988/89),p.45.

[26] Stalin to Mao,June 5,1951,Cold War International History Project[hereafter CWIHP] Bulletin ,#6-7(Winter,1995/96),59.关于这些事件来龙去脉的详细描述,参见Gaddis, We Now Know ,pp.103-10.

[27] 有关苏联在朝鲜战争中的军事卷入的更多信息,可登录http://www.korean-war.com/ussr.html.

[28] Bird and Sherwin, American Prometheus ,pp.416-30;George F.Kennan,Memoirs:1925-1950(Boston:Atlantic-Little Brown,1967),pp.471-76.

[29] Gaddis, The Long Peace ,p.113.See also Gaddis, We Now Know ,pp.230-32.

[30] George Cowan and N.A.Vlasov,quoted in Gaddis, We Now Know ,p.224.

[31] Andrew P.N.Erdmann,“‘War No Longer Has Any Logic Whatever’:Dwight D.Eisenhower and the Thermonuclear Revolution,”in Gaddis, et al .,eds., Cold War Statesmen Confront the Bomb ,p.101.

[32] Andrew P.N.Erdmann,“‘War No Longer Has Any Logic Whatever’:Dwight D.Eisenhower and the Thermonuclear Revolution,”in Gaddis, et al .,eds., Cold War Statesmen Confront the Bomb ,p.101.

[33] Holloway, Stalin and the Bomb ,pp.336-37.

[34] Gaddis, The Long Peace ,p.109.

[35] Jonathan Rosenberg,“Before the Bomb and After:Winston Churchill and the Use of Force,”in Gaddis, et al .,eds., Cold war Statesmen Confront the Bomb ,p.191.

[36] James C.Hagerty diary,July 27,1954,in FRUS :1952-54,XV,1844-45.

[37] Erdmann,“Eisenhower and the Thermonuclear Revolution,”pp.106-7,113.

[38] Erdmann,“Eisenhower and the Thermonuclear Revolution,”p.109.

[39] 影响我的观点的书有Campbell Craig, Destroying the Village:Eisenhower and Thermonuclear War (New York:Columbia University Press,1999),especially pp.67-70.

[40] William Taubman, Khrushchev:The Man and His Era (New York:Norton,2003),pp.147-78.

[41] Nikita S.Khrushchev, Khrushchev Remembers:The Last Testament ,translated and edited by Strobe Talbott(Boston:Little,Brown,1974),p.47;James G.Blight,Bruce J.Allyn,and David A.Welch, Cuba on the Brink:Castro,the Missile Crisis,and the Soviet Collapse (New York:Pantheon,1993),p.130.关于这一时期苏联拥有的轰炸机和导弹数量,参见Stephen J.Zaloga, The Kremlin’s Nuclear Sword:The Rise and Fall of Russia’s Strategic Nuclear Forces ,1945-2000(Washington:Smithsonian Institution,2002),pp.22-59.

[42] 有关这一问题的进一步讨论,参见Gaddis, We Now Know ,pp.234-39;also Sergei Khrushchev, Khrushchev on Khrushchev:An Inside Account of the Man and His Era ,edited and translated by William Taubman(Boston:Little,Brown,1990),p.56.

[43] Taubman, Khrushchev ,p.407.

[44] McGeorge Bundy, Danger and Survival:Choices About the Bomb in the First Fifty Years (New York:Random House,1988),p.331.

[45] Hope M.Harrison, Driving the Soviets Up the Wall:Soviet - East German Relations ,1953-1961(Princeton:Princeton University Press,2003),pp.111-12;Khrushchev, Khrushchev Remembers:The Last Testament ,p.501;Taubman, Khrushchev ,p.407;Dean Rusk,as told to Richard Rusk, As I Saw It (New York:Norton 1990),p.227.

[46] Sergei Khrushchev, Khrushchev on Khrushchev ,p.356.Emphasis in original.

[47] 有关赫鲁晓夫访美的最精彩描述,参见Taubman, Khrushchev ,pp.419-41.

[48] John Ranelagh, The Agency:The Rise and Decline of the CIA (New York:Simon and Schuster,1986),pp.149-59.

[49] Andrew Goodpaster interview,CNN Cold War ,Episode 8,“Sputnik,1949-61.”

[50] Michael R.Beschloss, Mayday:Eisenbower,Khrushchev and the U -2 Affair (New York:Harper & Row,1986),pp121-22.

[51] Zaloga, The Kremlin’s Nuclear Sword ,pp.49-50.

[52] Taubman, Khrushchev ,p.444.

[53] Taubman, Khrushchev ,p.460.

[54] Deputy Secretary of Defense Roswell Gilpatric,quoted in Gaddis, We Now Know ,p.256.

[55] Taubman, Khrushchev ,p.536.

[56] AleksandrFursenko and Timothy Naftali,“ One Hell of a Gamble ”: Khrushchev,Castro,and Kennedy ,1958-1964(New York:Norton,1997),p171.See also Taubman, Khrushchev ,pp.536-37.

[57] Fursenko and Naftali,“ One Hell of a gamble ,”p.39.

[58] Nikita S.Khrushchev, Khrushchev Remembers ,translated and edited by Strobe Talbott(New York:Bantam,1971),p.546.

[59] Taubman, Khrushchev ,p537.

[60] See the transcripts of conversations between American and Soviet veterans of the crisis in Blight,Allyn,and Welch, Cuba on the Brink ;and in James G.Blight and David A.Welch, On the Brink,Ameicansans Soviets Reexamine the Cuban Missile Crisis (New York:Hill and Wang,1989).

[61] Kennedy meeting with advisers,October 22,1962,in Ernest R.May and Philip D.Zelikow,eds., The Kennedy Tapes:Inside the White House during the Cuban Missile Crisis (Cambridge,Massachusetts:Harvard University Press,1997),p.235.

[62] Taubman, Khrushchev ,p552.

[63] Blight,Allyn,and Welch, Cuba on the Brink ,p.259.

[64] Blight,Allyn,and Welch, Cuba on the Brink ,p.203.

[65] Gaddis, We Now Know ,p.262;“NRDC Nuclear Notebook:Global Nuclear Stockpiles,1945-2002,”p.104.

[66] Blight,Allyn,and Welch, Cuba on the Brink ,p.360.

[67] Lawrence Freedman, The Evolution of Nuclear Strategy (New York:St.Martin’s Press,1983),p.235.

[68] Lawrence Freedman, The Evolution of Nuclear Strategy (New York:St.Martin’s Press,1983),p.238.

[69] CNN Cold War ,Episode 10,“Cuba:1959-1962.”

[70] Bundy, Danger and Survival ,pp.543-48.

[71] 有关这一问题的进一步论述,参见Gaddis, The Long Peace ,pp.195-214.

[72] Yann Martel, Life of Pi (New York:Harcourt,2002). 1IDJN+l8mmcf+Nn0XcC4y7fl+ZbVX/DUDQQJHV98ncdoGNzN4n6kEgmc4xRWveJ+



第三章
指令社会抗衡自发社会

有两个国家,它们之间没有来往,缺乏同情,互相不了解对方的习惯、思想和感觉,就好像它们是不同地区的居民,或者不同星球的居民,属于不同的人种,吃不同的食物长大,接受不同的指令,不受相同的法律制约。

——本杰明·迪斯雷利(Benjamin Disraeli),1854年 [1]

第二次世界大战以后,大国之间没有政治和经济的团结,世界分为两方,苏联及其卫星国为一方,世界的其余部分为另一方,在这两方之间存在着完全的割裂。简言之,地球上有两个世界,而不是一个世界。

——查尔斯·波伦(Charles E.Bohlen),1947年 [2]

两个超级大国共同生存在一个星球上,它们都掌握着毁灭对方的手段,它们也都不希望看到对方被毁灭。有这样的共识,它们得以共处。但是,它们是处于什么样的生存状态下呢?各方制度下的生活是什么样子呢?各个社会制度下的经济发展如何呢?社会正义如何呢?人们是否可以自由地决定自己的生活方式呢?冷战不仅仅是一场地缘政治的对抗,不仅仅是一场核武器竞赛,冷战是一场如何回答上述问题的较量,对双方来说,这个较量的意义非常重大,就像人类生存一样重要,其核心问题就是:应该如何组织人类社会。

尼基塔·赫鲁晓夫曾对一些西方外交官说:“不管你们喜不喜欢,历史在我们这边。我们将埋葬你们。”西方外交官以后一直在解释赫鲁晓夫的那些话到底意味着什么。他说,他指的不是核战争,而是共产主义将战胜资本主义,共产主义的胜利是由历史决定的。1961年,赫鲁晓夫承认,苏联可能真的落后于西方,但他强调十年之内,苏联的住房短缺将消失,消费品将大批出现,苏联人民将过上“丰衣足食的生活”。在二十年之内,苏联“将上升到一个高度,相形之下,主要的资本主义国家将远远落在后面”。 [3] 简单地说,共产主义代表了未来的潮流。

但是,历史没有像赫鲁晓夫预见的那样发展。到1971年,苏联和东欧卫星国的经济停滞不前。到1981年,苏联的生活水平下降得如此之快,以至于人均寿命也出现下滑,这是发达工业社会中没有出现过的情况。到1991年底,苏联这个世界上共产主义的样板本身也不复存在了。

现在很清楚了:赫鲁晓夫的语言完全是一厢情愿的表述,而不是以事实分析为依据。但是,令人吃惊的是:当时有那么多人对赫鲁晓夫的话信以为真,这些人不光是共产党人。比如,美国新总统约翰·肯尼迪在1961年维也纳高峰会议上碰到赫鲁晓夫时,就被赫鲁晓夫表现出的意识形态自信震住了。肯尼迪承认说,“他把我吓得不轻”。英国首相哈罗德·麦克米伦(Harold Macmllan)不久以后说,肯尼迪“显得很惊恐,就像有人在拿破仑处于权力巅峰时见到他所表现的战战兢兢那样”。 [4] 当时,有许多人抱有和肯尼迪一样的反应。在过去的一百年中,共产主义使许多政治家以及他们领导的国家不寒而栗,原因就是共产主义激发并唤醒了无数下层民众,这些民众认为,马克思主义-列宁主义可以给他们带来更好的生活。在冷战初期,西方政治家对共产主义的恐惧达到高峰,同时,下层民众对共产主义的期望也达到高峰。但是到冷战结束时,情况就不一样了。 87G/oNX8J3po5ZrfOQD2XKh0xvvY6qOdq1Zywh3suRYS1LYR6dk302h/MBsIOXNa

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