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因此,第二次世界大战的胜利并没有给战胜方带来安全感。在1950年结束时,不管是美国,还是英国,还是苏联,谁都不认为自己在二战中为了打败德国和日本而付出的生命和物质代价换来了战后的安全感:昔日大同盟中的战友如今已成为冷战对手。他们的利益是互相矛盾的;他们的意识形态就像在战前一样,是不相容的;美英苏的军事领导人都害怕再发生一次突然袭击。一个围绕战后欧洲走向的冲突已经扩展到亚洲。斯大林的统治仍然那么严厉,仍然那么依赖于内部大清洗,再加上美国出现麦卡锡主义以及在大西洋两边都发现间谍渗透的确凿证据,人们不能确定:西方民主国家是不是还能继续容忍不同意见,是不是还能继续尊重公民自由,而尊重公民自由恰恰是区别西方民主国家同法西斯独裁国家的关键因素。

1947年,凯南对国家战争学院(National War College)的学生说:“事实上,在我们每个人的内心深处都有那么一点极权主义的倾向,因为我们有自信和安全感,所以能够将我们身上的极权主义罪恶倾向压下去……如果没有了自信和安全感,恐怕我们身上的极权主义倾向就会冒出来。” [69] 凯南是在提醒人们,需要加以遏制的敌人既存在于享受自由的人中间,也存在于压制自由的人中间。遏制政策的发起人会说出这样的话,表明当时对战后国际秩序存在着广泛的恐惧,而战时人们曾对这个战后国际秩序抱有很大的希望。这也解释了为什么奥威尔的《1984》一书在1949年一出版就立刻在文坛获得成功。 [70]

但是,奥威尔在他的书中起码还描述了一个世界的未来,尽管这个未来是非常惨淡的,而在1950年初,凯南却担心这个世界可能没有未来。凯南写了一份绝密备忘录,但杜鲁门政府没有把它当一回事。在这份备忘录中,凯南指出,从历史上看,使用武力一直是“实现目的的一个手段,这个目的不是战争……这个目的起码不否定生命存在的原则”。但是,原子弹和氢弹却不符合上述历史定律,因为:

它们将西方文明推回到野蛮时期,推回到亚细亚部落所推崇的那种战争观念上。如果政治的目的是改变对手的生命,而不是消灭对手的生命的话,原子弹和氢弹不可能为这样的政治目的服务,因为它们不可能顾及人对人的最终责任,甚至不可能顾及人们对彼此失误和错误的包容。它们意味着人们不仅可能是,而且就是自己最坏的敌人。

凯南认为,其中的教训就如莎士比亚的一首诗所说的:

权力成为意志,意志变成欲望,欲望就如一条贪婪不足的恶狼,它在得到了意志和权力后,把全世界都当作它的猎物,最后把自己也吃掉。 [71]


[1] Interviews,CNN Cold War ,Episode I,“Comrades,1917-1945”.

[2] Alexander Werth, Russia at War:1941-1945 (New York:E.P.Dutton,1964),p.1045.英美伤亡数字来自 Britannica Online .苏联伤亡数字来自Vladimir O.Pechatnov and C.Earl Edmondson,“The Russian Perspective,”in Ralph B.Levering,Vladimir O.Pechatnov,Verena Botzenhart-Viehe,and C.Earl Edmondson, Debating the Origins of the Cold War:American and Russian Perspectives (New York:Rowman& Littlefield,2002),p.86

[3] Warren F.Kimball, TheJuggler:Franklin Roosevelt as Wartime Statesman (Princeton:Princeton University Press,1991),pp.97-99.

[4] George F.Kennan, Memoirs:1925-1950 (Boston:Atlantic-Little,Brown,1967),p.279.

[5] 有关这个问题,见AlanBullock, Hitler and Stalin:Parallel Lives (New York:Knopf,1992),p.464.

[6] Pechatnov and Edmondson,“The Russian Perspective,”p.92.

[7] Geoffrey Roberts,“Stalin and Soviet Foreign Policy,”in Melvyn P.Leffler and David S.Painter,eds., Origins of the Cold War:An International History ,second edition(New York:Routledge,2005),pp.42-57.

[8] Geoffrey Roberts,“Stalin and Soviet Foreign Policy,”in Melvyn P.Leffler and David S.Painter,eds., Origins of the Cold War:An International History ,second edition(New York:Routledge,2005),p.51.

[9] John Lewis Gaddis, The United States and the Origins of the Cold War,1941-1947 (New York:Columbia University Press,1972),p.190.

[10] Joseph Stalin, Economic Problems of Socialism in the USSR (Moscow:Foreign Languages Publishing House,1952),excerpted in Robert V.Daniels,ed., A Documentary History of Communism ,revised edition(Hanover,New Hampshire:University Press of New England,1984),II,172.

[11] Record of Stalin-Thorez conversation,November 18,1947,in Levering, et al ., Debating the Origins of the Cold War ,p.174.

[12] 潘恩的话来自他于1776年写的书《常识》( Common Sense ),节录于Dennis Merrill and Thomas G.Paterson,eds., Major Problems in American Foreign Policy ,sixth edition(New York:Houghton Mifflin,2005),I,34.

[13] John Quincy Adams speech,July 4,1821,in Dennis Merrill and Thomas G.Paterson,eds., Major Problems in American Foreign Policy ,sixth edition(New York:Houghton Mifflin,2005),I,132.

[14] Address to Congress,April 2,1917,in Dennis Merrill and Thomas G.Paterson,eds., Major Problems in American Foreign Policy ,sixth edition(New York:Houghton Mifflin,2005),I,431.

[15] Robert Dallek, Franklin D.Roosevelt and American Foreign Policy,1932-1945 (New York:Oxford University Press,1979),p.70.

[16] Speech to the International Student Assembly,September 3,1942,in Samuel I.Rosenman,ed., The Public Papers and Addresses of Franklin D.Roosevelt (New York:Random House,1941-50),XI,353.

[17] Roy Jenkins, Churchill:A Biography (New York:Farrar,Straus and Giroux,2001),pp.350-51.

[18] Vojtech Mastny, Russia’s Road to the Cold War:Diplomacy,Warfare,and the Politics of Communism,1941-1945 (New York:Columbia University Press,1979),pp.156-62.

[19] Nikolai Novikov to Soviet foreign ministry,September 27,1946,in Kenneth M.Jensen,ed., Origins of the Cold War:The Novikov,Kennan,and Roberts“Long Telegrams”of 1946 ,revised edition(Washington:United States Institute of Peace,1993),pp.3-4.

[20] Mastny, Russia’s Road to the Cold War ,p.270.关于斯大林-丘吉尔协议的问题,见Kimball, The Juggler ,pp.160-64.

[21] Pechatnov and Edmondson,“The Russian Perspective,”p.98.

[22] W.Averell Harriman and Elie Abel, Special Envoy to Churchill and Stalin,1941-1946 (New York:Random House,1975),p.444.

[23] Pechatnov and Edmondson,“The Russian Perspective,”p.109.

[24] Norman M.Naimark, The Russians in Germany:A History of the Soviet Zone of Occupation,1945-1949 (Cambridge,Massachusetts:Harvard University Press,1995),pp.69-140.

[25] Tsuyoshi Hasagawa, Racing the Enemy:Stalin,Truman,and the Surrender of Japan (Cambridge,Massachusetts:Harvard University Press,2005)对这个问题做了最详尽的讨论。

[26] 关于戴维·格林哥拉斯-朱丽叶斯·罗森堡案和克劳斯·福克斯案的详细论述,见Richard Rhodes, Dark Sun:The Making of the Hydrogen Bomb (New York:Simon and Schuster,1995),pp.27-198.关于第三个间谍案,即泰德·霍尔案的简略描述,见Kai Bird and Martin J.Sherwin, American Prometheus:The Triumph and Tragedy of J.Robert Oppenheimer (New York:Knopf,2005),pp.286-87,and in an interview with Hall in CNN Cold War ,Episode 21,“Spies.”

[27] Simon Sebag Montefiore, Stalin:The Court of the Red Tsar (New York:Knopf,2004),p.502.

[28] Simon Sebag Montefiore, Stalin:The Court of the Red Tsar (New York:Knopf,2004),p.502.

[29] Stalin to Molotov,Beria,Mikoyan,and Malenkov,December 9,1945,in Levering, et al ., Debating the Origins of the Cold War ,p.155.

[30] 关于这个问题的进一步论述,见Robert Jervis, Perception and Misperception in International Politics (Princeton:Princeton University Press,1976),pp.62-67.

[31] Albert Resis,ed., Molotov Remembers:Inside Kremlin Politics:Conversations with Felix Chuev (Chicago:Ivan R.Dec,1993),p.8.

[32] Albert Resis,ed., Molotov Remembers:Inside Kremlin Politics:Conversations with Felix Chuev (Chicago:Ivan R.Dec,1993),p.8.

[33] For more on these crises,see FernandeScheidRaine,“The Iranian Crisis of 1946 and the Origins of the Cold War”,in Leffler and Painter,eds., Origins of the Cold War ,pp.93-111;and Eduard Mark,“The Turkish War Scare of 1946,”in Leffler and Painter,eds., Origins of the Cold War ,pp.112-33.

[34] Kennan,Memoirs:1925-1950,pp.292-95.

[35] Kennan to State Department,February 22,1946,U.S.Department of State, Foreign Relations of the United States [hereafter FRUS ]: 1946 ,VI,699-700;“X”[George F.Kennan],“The Sources of Soviet Conduct,” Foreign Affairs ,25(July,1947),575,emphasis added.

[36] Pechatnov and Edmondson,“The Russian Perspective,”p.116.

[37] Novikov to Soviet Foreign Ministry,September 27,1946,in Jensen,ed., Origins of the Cold War:The Novikov,Kennan,and Roberts“Long Telegrams”of 1946 ,pp.3-16.

[38] Viktor L.Mal’kov,“Commentary,”in Jensen,ed., Origins of the Cold War:The Novikov,Kennan,and Roberts“Long Telegrams”of 1946 ,p.75.

[39] Charles E.Bohlen, Witness to History :1929-1969(New York:Norton,1973),p.263.

[40] Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States:Harry S.Truman ,1947(Washington:Government Printing Office,1963),pp.178-79.

[41] Yoram Gorlizki and Oleg Khlevniuk, Cold Peace:Stalin and the Soviet Ruling Circle ,1945-1953(New York:Oxford University Press,2004),pp.35-36.

[42] Kennan, Memoirs :1925-1950,p.326.

[43] John Lewis Gaddis, We Now Know:Rethinking Cold War History (New York:Oxford University Press,1997),pp.41-42.

[44] Montefiore, Stalin ,p.569.

[45] John A.Armitage,“The View from Czechoslovakia,”in Thomas T.Hammond,ed., Witnesses to the Origins of the Cold War (Seattle:University of Washington Press,1982),pp.225-26.

[46] Nikita S.Khrushchev, Khrushchev Remembers ,translated and edited by Strobe Talbott(New York:Little,Brown,1970),p.411n.

[47] John Lewis Gaddis, The Long Peace:Inquiries into the History of the Cold War (New York:Oxford University Press,1987),pp.158-59.

[48] Pechatnow and Edmondson:“The Russian Perspective,”p.139.

[49] James V.Forrestal to Chan Gurney,December 8,1947,in Walter Millis,ed., The Forrestal Diaries (New York:Viking,1951),pp.350-51.

[50] Gaddis, The Long Peace ,pp.111-12.

[51] PPS/39,“United States Policy Toward China,”September 7,1948, FRUS :1948,VIII,148.

[52] James Chace, Acheson:The Secretary of State Who Created the Modern World (New York:Simon & Schuster,1998),p.217.

[53] Chen Jian, Mao’s China and the Cold War (Chapel Hill:University of North Carolina Press,2001),p.50.

[54] Gaddis, We Now Know ,pp.58-66.

[55] Marc Selverstone,“‘All Roads Lead to Moscow’:The United States,Great Britain,and the Communist Monolith,”Ph.D.Dissertation,Ohio University History Department,2000,p.380.

[56] Gaddis, We Now Know ,pp.66-67.

[57] Gaddis, We Now Know ,p.94.

[58] David M.Oshinsky, A Conspiracy So Immense:The World of Joe McCarthy (New York:Free Press,1983),pp.108-9.

[59] Gaddis, The Long Peace ,p.96.

[60] Kathryn Weathersby,“Stalin and the Korean War,”in Leffler and Painter,eds., Origins of the Cold War ,pp.274-75.

[61] Gaddis, We Now Know ,pp.66-70,158-61.

[62] Gaddis, The Long Peace ,p.97.

[63] Montefiore, Stalin ,p.608.

[64] Chen Jian, China’s Road to the Korean War:The Making of the Sino - American Confrontation (New York:Columbia University Press,1994),p.143.See also ShuGuang Zhang, Mao’s Military Romanticism:China and the Korean War ,1950-1953(Lawrence:University Press of Kansas,1995),pp.55-86.

[65] Gaddis, We Now Know ,pp.79-80.

[66] Interview with Lt.Col.Charles Bussey,U.S.Army 24th Infantry Regiment,CNN Cold War ,Episode 5,“Korea.”

[67] Zhang, Mao’s Military Romanticism ,p.78.

[68] D.Clayton James, The Years of MacArthur:Triumph and Disaster ,1945-1964(Boston:Houghton Mifflin,1985),p.536.

[69] Kennan, Memoirs :1925-1950,p.319.

[70] Michael Shelden, Orwell:The Authorized Biography (New York:Harper Collins,1991),p.430.

[71] “International Control of Atomic Energy,”January 20,1950,in Thomas H.Etzold and John Lewis Gaddis,eds., Containment:Documents on American Policy and Strategy ,1945-1950(New York:Columbia University Press,1978),p.380.The passage is from Troilus and Cressida . RG0MKbAotbjQEv1wpTjYb3ctyWeSibbIEwbe0v9klu3TlU2mtFs5DG1aP+ilUv0v

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