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Academic writing is what scholars do to communicate with other scholars in their fields of stud,their disciplines.Academic texts aim to persuade readers of knowledge claims or of critical evaluation of others'ork.Communities provide the context within which we learn to communicate and to interpret each other' discours,gradually acquiring the specialized competencies to participate as members.Writin,therefor,is a practice based on expectatio,and established pattern forms the basis of any creativity and variations.It follows that disciplines are particular ways of using language to engage with others.The key concepts of a disciplin,its methods of persuasio,its ways of negotiating interpretations and its practices of constructing knowledge are all defined through and by language.Learning a discipline thus means learning to communicate as a member of a community.Some fundamental elements of academic English discourse ar:
1.Academic writing for the academic community should be formal in styl;colloquial language (including contractions like don ’ t ， can ’ t ）should be avoided except in quotations.The tone should be seriou,and the language should be concise and precis,demonstrating logical reasoning.
2.Academic discourse is constructed and developed by members of the scholarly community.
3.Disciplines structure research within wider frameworks of belief,constitute a way of making sense of human experienc,and provide the conventions and expectations that make texts meaningful.
4.Cultural factors have the potential to influence perceptio,languag,learning and communication.
5.The teaching of academic English(oth reading and writin)needs to involve conventionalized forms of communicatio,in order that language learners have the means to be able to write extended prose that is both accurate and appropriate.
There is much that science doesn' understan,many mysteries still to be resolved.In a Universe tens of billions of light years across and some ten or fifteen billion years ol,this may be the case forever.We are constantly stumbling on surprises.Yet some New Age and religious writers assert that scientists believe that"what they find is all there is".Scientists may reject mystic revelations for which there is no evidence except somebody' say-s,but they hardly believe their knowledge of Nature to be complete.
Science is far from a perfect instrument of knowledge.It' just the best we have.In this respec,as in many other,it' like democracy.Science by itself cannot advocate courses of human actio,but it can certainly illuminate the possible consequences of alternative courses of action.
The scientific way of thinking is at once imaginative and disciplined.This is central to its success.Science invites us to let the facts in, even when they don't conform to our preconceptions.It counsels us to carry alternative hypotheses in our heads and see which best fit the facts.It urges on us a delicate balance between no-holds-barred openness to new idea,however heretica,and the most rigorous sceptical scrutiny of everything—new ideas and established wisdom.This kind of thinking is also an essential tool for a democracy in an age of change.
One of the reasons for its success is that science has built-i,error-correcting machinery at its very heart.Some may consider this an overbroad characterizatio,but to me every time we exercise self-criticis,every time we test our ideas against the outside worl,we are doing science.When we are self-indulgent and uncritica,when we confuse hopes and fact,we slide into pseudoscience and superstition.
Every time a scientific paper presents a bit of dat,it' accompanied by an error bar—a quiet but insistent reminder that no knowledge is complete or perfect.It' a calibration of how much we trust what we think we know.If the error bars are smal,the accuracy of our empirical knowledge is hig;if the error bars are larg,then so is the uncertainty in our knowledge.Except in pure mathematics nothing is known for certain(lthough much is certainly fals).
Moreove,scientists are usually careful to characterize the veridical status of their attempts to understand the world—ranging from conjectures and hypothese,which are highly tentativ,all the way up to laws of Nature which are repeatedly and systematically confirmed through many interrogations of how the world works.But even laws of Nature are not absolutely certain.There may be new circumstances never before examined—inside black hole,sa,or within the electro,or close to the speed of light—where even our vaunted laws of Nature break down an,however valid they may be in ordinary circumstance,need correction.
Humans may crave absolute certaint;they may aspire to i;they may preten,as partisans of certain religions d,to have attained it.But the history of science—by far the most successful claim to knowledge accessible to humans—teaches that the most we can hope for is successive improvement in our understandin,learning from our mistake,an asymptotic approach to the Univers,but with the proviso that absolute certainty will always elude us.
We will always be mired in error.The most each generation can hope for is to reduce the error bars a littl,and to add to the body of data to which error bars apply.The error bar is a pervasiv,visible self-assessment of the reliability of our knowledge.You often see error bars in public opinion polls（"an uncertainty of plus or minus three per cent"，sa).Imagine a society in which every speech in the CongressionalRecord ，every television commercia,every sermon had an accompanying error bar or its equivalent.
One of the great commandments of science i, "Mistrust arguments from authority".（Scientist,being primate,and thus given to dominance hierarchie,of course do not always follow this commandment.）Too many such arguments have proved too painfully wrong.Authorities must prove their contentions like everybody else.This independence of scienc,its occasional unwillingness to accept conventional wisdo,makes it dangerous to doctrines less self-critica,or with pretensions to certitude.
Because science carries us toward an understanding of how the world i,rather than how we would wish it to b,its findings may not in all cases be immediately comprehensible or satisfying.It may take a little work to restructure our mindsets.Some of science is very simple.When it gets complicate,that' usually because the world is complicated—or because we ’ re complicated.When we shy away from it because it seems too difficult(r because we'e been taught so poorl)，we surrender the ability to take charge of our future.We are disenfranchised.Our self-confidence erodes.
But when we pass beyond the barrie,when the findings and methods of science get through to u,when we understand and put this knowledge to us,many feel deep satisfaction.This is true for everyon,but especially for children—born with a zest for knowledg,aware that they must live in a future moulded by scienc,but so often convinced in their adolescence that science is not for them.I know personall,both from having science explained to me and from my attempts to explain it to other,how gratifying it is when we get i,when obscure terms suddenly take on meanin,when we grasp what all the fuss is abou,when deep wonders are revealed.
In its encounter with Natur,science invariably elicits a sense of reverence and awe.The very act of understanding is a celebration of joinin,mergin,even if on a very modest scal,with the magnificence of the Cosmos.And the cumulative worldwide build-up of knowledge over time converts science into something only a little short of a transnationa,trans-generational meta-mind.
"Spirit"comes from the Latin word"to breathe".What we breathe is ai,which is certainly matte,however thin.Despite usage to the contrar,there is no necessary implication in the word"spiritual"that we are talking of anything other than matter(ncluding the matter of which the brain is mad)，or anything outside the realm of science.On occasio,I will feel free to use the word.Science is not only compatible with spiritualit;it is a profound source of spirituality.When we recognize our place in an immensity of light years and in the passage of age,when we grasp the intricac,beauty and subtlety of lif,then that soaring feelin,that sense of elation and humility combine,is surely spiritual.So are our emotions in the presence of great art or music or literatur,or of acts of exemplary selfless courage such as those of Mohandas Gandhi or Martin Luther King Jr.The notion that science and spirituality are somehow mutually exclusive does a disservice to both.
Dawkin,R. The Oxford Book ofModern Science Writing .Oxfor:Oxford University Pres,2008.
accessibl:easy to understand and enjoy
adolescenc:the time(sually between the ages of 12 to 18）when a young person is developing into an adult
asymptoti:approaching a given value or condition but does not meet it at any finite distance
calibratio:the act of checking or adjusting(y comparison with a standar)the accuracy of a measuring instrument
certitud:a feeling of being certai;a thing about which you are certain
conjectur:a conclusion that is based on information that is not certain or complete
contentio:a belief or an opinion that you expres,especially in an argument
counse:（ formal ）advise sb.to do sth.
crav:have a very strong desire for sth.
cumulativ:increasing by successive addition
demo:an evil spiri;sth.that causes a person to worry and makes them unhappy
disservic:sth.that harms sb.
disenfranchis:take away sb' right,especially their right to vote
elatio:a feeling of great happiness and excitement
elici:get information or a reaction from sb.，often with difficulty
elud:manage to avoid or escap,either physically or mentall,especially in a clever wa;be incomprehensible to
empirica:based on experiments or experience rather than ideas or theories
equivalen:a thin,amoun,wor,etc.that is equal to sth.else
haun:visit or inhabit as a ghos;visit often
heretica:characterized by departure from accepted beliefs or standards
interrogatio:formal systematic questioning
intricac:the complicated parts or details of sth.
mir:cause to get stuck as if in the mud
no-holds-barre:free of restrictions or hampering conventions
obscur:not clearly seen or easily distinguishe;not readily understood or clearly expressed
pervasiv:existing in or spreading through every part of sth.
pretensio:claim
provis:a condition that must be accepted before an agreement can be made
reverenc:（ formal ）a feeling of great respect or admiration for sb./sth.
skeptica:denying or questioning the tenets of especially a religion
scrutin:careful and thorough examination
shy awa:try to avoid(th.）because of nervousnes,fea,dislik,etc.
subtlet:the small but important details or aspects of sth.
tentativ:(f an arrangemen,agreemen,etc.）not definite or certain
vali:based on what is logical or tru;legally or officially acceptable
vaun:call attention to pridefully and often boastfully
veridica:coinciding with reality
1.Instead of supporting courses of human actio,science can_____.
2.The scientific way of thinkin,which is central to scientific succes,is_____.
3.According to Saga,we are doing science when_____.
4.According to Saga,followers of some religions assume that they have attained_____.
5.According to Saga,one important commandment of science is_____.
6.If science does not turn out to be how we wish it to b,we need to_____.
7.It is_____when obscure terms suddenly take on meaning.
8.Our emotions aroused by great art or music or literature are_____.
1.Why does Carl Sagan say science is like democr?
2.What is an error b?Is it possible to eliminate it from our knowled?
3.What is especially true for children according to Sag?
4.Why does Sagan say"science invariably elicits a sense of reverence and awe"？
5.How is science connected with spirituali?
1.Scientists may reject mystic revelations for which there is no evidence except somebody' say-s,but they hardly believe their knowledge of Nature to be complete.
2.Science by itself cannot advocate courses of human actio,but it can certainly illuminate the possible consequences of alternative courses of action.
3.There may be new circumstances never before examined—inside black hole,sa,or within the electro,or close to the speed of light—where even our vaunted laws of Nature break down an,however valid they may be in ordinary circumstance,need correction.
4.But the history of science—by far the most successful claim to knowledge accessible to humans—teaches that the most we can hope for is successive improvement in our understandin,learning from our mistake,an asymptotic approach to the Univers,but with the proviso that absolute certainty will always elude us.
5.This independence of scienc,its occasional unwillingness to accept conventional wisdo,makes it dangerous to doctrines less self-critica,or with pretensions to certitude.
6.And the cumulative worldwide build-up of knowledge over time converts science into something only a little short of a transnationa,trans-generational meta-mind.
7.The notion that science and spirituality are somehow mutually exclusive does a disservice to both.
In his book From Knowledge to Wisdom ，Nicholas Maxwell argues that the burden of suffering and injustice carried by present masses of people is so extensive that humanity as a whole must give priority to the solving of the problems of life.Inquiry is in need of a radical transformation in its aims.Instead of remaining geared towards obtaining knowledg,it needs to be channeled towards the enhancement of wisdom.He opposes what he calls the philosophy of knowledge and argues for the philosophy of wisdom.According to the forme,the proper aim of rational inquiry is to acquire knowledg,and this can only be achieved by dissociating the inquiry from distant goal,values and background beliefs related to common social life.He calls this dissociation an irrational feature of the philosophy of knowledg,and is convinced that it dominates most of present academic research and activity.Rationality requires that we articulate the basic problems facing us and then propose and assess possible solutions.When breaking up basic problems into smaller one,we need to keep every aspect in vie,so as not to be carried away by any one set of aspects and neglect the others.Rational inquiry demands keeping the correct balance.Unbalance very often results when organized inquiry is restricted to solving problems of knowledge in a way that is intellectually dissociated from problems of living.
Maxwell presents the philosophy of wisdom as a corrective to this.It enables the inquirer overcome the damaging effects of the philosophy of knowledge.The best way to describe this philosophy of wisdom is probably to refer to his concept of aim-oriented rationality.All problem-solving is aim-pursuin,but not all aim-pursuing is problem-solving.One may pursue an aim that is completely irrelevant to one' pressing problems.A young man ma,for instanc,be alienated by the immediate satisfaction available while playing games.He does not realize that his time may be better used to acquire a useful skill for future stable employment.Maxwell applies this point to the search for truth.Seeking truth for its own sake can alway,and indeed should alway,be supplemented by the meta-questio:why are we pursuing this a?This meta-question guarantees that our efforts as inquirers are channeled towards the obtaining of valuable truth,valuable for genuine human flourishing.Neglecting this meta-question deforms rational inquiry not only in science but also in philosophy.Maxwell insists that philosophy has sadly been contaminated beyond recognition by a limited idea of scienc:"All of lif,and all of inquir,has suffered to a greater or lesser extent as a result of the intellectual failure of philosophy to give priority to the task of promoting wisdom in life."
Some may take exception here by arguing that relevant knowledge must precede action for that action to be rational.Research in natural science is value-neutral and a clear distinction needs to be drawn between the work of scientists and that of politicians who decide how to use the fruits of scientific research.Maxwell blocks this objection in a compelling way.He recalls ho,in basic everyday practic,we are always discrediting this principle.We do not depend on correct prior knowledge of the internal structure of the eye to see well.We do not depend on correct prior knowledge of the structure of the brain to think well.Similarl,we do not depend on correct prior knowledge of the world to act.Knowledge is usefu,certainly.Nevertheles,it cannot be considered prior to action at the level of rudimentary everyday practice.In more sophisticated actio,the kind that constitutes scientific practic,the theory-ladenness of observation demands that a simplistic model involving a dichotomy between science and life be abandoned.Maxwell summarizes his argument this wa:"What really matters is what we d,what goes on in our lives.Knowledge is of importance insofar as it contributes t,and participates i,life."
Louis Caruana. Science andVirtue ： An Essay on the Impact ofthe Scientific Mentality on Moral Character .Hampshir:Ashgate Publishing Limite,2006.
alienat:cause sb.to feel isolated
articulat:express or explain your thoughts or feelings clearly in words
compellin:causing interes,attentio,or admiration in a powerful way
contaminat:pollut;（ formal ）influence people' ideas or attitudes in a bad way
defor:change or spoil the usual or natural shape of sth.
dichotom:（ formal ）a division or contrast between two opposing groups or things
geare:designed or adjusted to achieve a particular purpose
rudimentar:（ formal ）very basic or undeveloped
1.Nicholas Maxwell holds that suffering and injustice are the problems that we should solve first of all.
2.Some people may be of the opinion that the aim of academic inquiry is to obtain knowledge.
3.Inquiry shoul,according to Maxwel,help us have more knowledge to solve problems rather than to enhance wisdom.
4.The philosophy of knowledge agrees with the notion of"knowledge for its own sake".
5.When solving problem,we should divide them into smaller ones and focus on each aspect.
6.Academics can achieve correct balance if they keep away from problems of living.
7.Maxwell apparently believes that the philosophy of knowledge brings harmful results.
8.Maxwell demands that the pursuit of truth must benefit the humanity.
9.Maxwell suggests that we must use relevant knowledge to guide our action in everyday life.
10.Maxwell maintains that knowledge and life cannot be separated.
1.What function is the opening sentence of the first paragra?Does it give you an understanding of the main theme of the artic?
2.Does Maxwell agree with the philosophy of knowled?If no,why does he talk about ?
3.According to Maxwel,what kind of question should an inquirer ask when they set to seek tru?
4.How does Maxwell refute the argument that"knowledge must precede action"？Do you think his refutation val?
5.What is Maxwell' view of knowled?Do you agree with h?Why or why n?
1.In his book From Knowledge to Wisdo,Nicholas Maxwell argues that the burden of suffering and injustice carried by present masses of people is so extensive that humanity as a whole must give priority to the solving of the problems of life.
2.Instead of remaining geared towards obtaining knowledg,it needs to be channeled towards the enhancement of wisdom.
3.Unbalance very often results when organized inquiry is restricted to solving problems of knowledge in a way that is intellectually dissociated from problems of living.
4.In more sophisticated actio,the kind that constitutes scientific practic,the theory-ladenness of observation demands that a simplistic model involving a dichotomy between science and life be abandoned.
1.Are there any differences between Chinese and English persuasive writi?If s,what are th?
2.Discuss the characteristics of academic language.
3.Write an essay with the title"Scientific Advancement and a Better Life".
● ante/anti-：befor,front
antedate（ 先于 ， 前于 ）
anticipate（ 预测 ）
antediluvian（ 远古的 ， 非常古老的 ）
antecedent（ 祖先 ， 先前的 ）
● de-：dow,opposite effect(f the original ver)，removal(ith nou)
descriptive（ 描写的 ， 叙述的 ）
decentralize（ 分散 ， 疏散 ）
devalue（ 贬值 ）
defrost（ 解冻 ， 除霜 ）
● di-：tw,apart
dichotomize（ 二分 ）
digress（ 离题 ）
dilemma（ 困境 ， 进退两难 ）
digest（ 消化 ， 吸收 ， 摘要 ）
● equ:equal
equator（ 赤道 ）
inequality（ 不平等 ）
equitable（ 公正的 ， 公平的 ）
unequivocal（ 明确的 ， 不含糊的 ）
● ex-：ou,thoroughly
exclude（ 排除 ， 排斥 ）
exhaust（ 使精疲力竭 ， 耗尽 ）
efface（ 抹去 ）
exorbitant（ 要价等过高的 ， 性格等过分的 ）
● fi:trus,faith
confidence（ 信任 ， 信心 ）
fidelity（ 忠贞 ， 忠诚 ）
confide（ 信任 ， 信赖 ）
diffidence（ 缺乏自信 ， 羞怯 ）
● fore-：fron,before
forearm（ 前臂 ， 准备 ）
foresight（ 先见 ， 远见 ）
foreshadow（ 预示 ， 预兆 ）
forerunner（ 先驱 ）
● for:shape
formative（ 形成的 ， 造型的 ）
deform（ 变形 ）
conform（ 符合 ， 遵守 ， 顺从 ）
uniform（ 统一的 ， 制服 ）
● -f:(erb suffi)to mak,to become
glorify（ 赞美 ， 美化 ）
purify（ 净化 ）
falsify（ 伪造 ， 篡改 ）
typify（ 代表 ， 作为 …… 的典型 ）
● juve:young
juvenile（ 青少年的 ， 幼稚的 ）
rejuvenate（ 使年轻 ）
juvenescent（ 变年轻的 ）
juvenal（ 雏鸟的 ， 羽翼未丰的 ）
● mo:move
commotion（ 骚乱 ， 暴动 ）
promotion（ 提升 ）
motivate（ 刺激 ， 激励 ）
demote（ 使降职 ）
● pe:driv,pus,force
compel（ 强迫 ， 迫使 ）
repellent（ 令人讨厌的 ， 排斥的 ）
dispel（ 驱逐 ）
propel（ 驱使 ）
● pl:fill
implement（ 实施 ）
replenish（ 补充 ）
complement（ 补语 ， 补足 ）
supplement（ 增补 ， 补给 ）
● por:carry
comport（ 行为 ， 举动 ）
import（ 进口 ， 输入 ）
deport（ 驱逐出境 ， 放逐 ）
purport（ 声称 ， 意图 ）
● pre-：befor,already
precaution（ 预防 ， 警惕 ）
preconception（ 偏见 ， 预想 ）
prerequisite（ 先决条件 ）
prehistoric（ 史前的 ， 陈旧的 ）
● pro-：fron,forwar,ou,support
pro-life（ 反堕胎的 ）
proceed（ 开始 ， 行进 ）
proclaim（ 宣告 ， 公布 ）
project（ 工程 ， 方案 ）
● simil:like
similarity（ 相似点 ）
dissimilar（ 不同的 ）
simile（ 明喻 ）
assimilate（ 吸收 ， 同化 ）
● spect/spi:loo,see
circumspect（ 慎重的 ）
prospect（ 展望 ， 前景 ）
conspicuous（ 显眼的 ， 出色的 ）
aspect（ 样子 ， 容貌 ； 方面 ）
● tech:skil,craf,art
technique（ 技巧 ， 技术 ）
technopolis（ 技术社会 ）
technocrat（ 技术专家 ）
technolatry（ 技术崇拜 ）
● under-：belo,less than
underestimate（ 低估 ）
underfed（ 未饱的 ）
understaffed（ 人手不足的 ）
underlie（ 位于 …… 之下 ， 成为 …… 的基础 ）
Getting out of intellectual ruts more often than not requires unexpected intellectual jousts.Nothing can replace the company of others who have the background to catch errors in your reasoning or provide facts that may either prove or disprove your argument of the moment.And the sharper those around yo,the sharper you will become.It' contrary to human natur,and especially to human male natur,but being the top dog in the pack can work against greater accomplishments.Much better to be the least accomplished chemist in a super chemistry department than the superstar in a less lustrous department.By the early 1950,Linus Pauling' scientific interactions with fellow scientists were effectively monologues instead of dialogues.He then wanted adoratio,not criticism.
Work with a teammate who is your intellectual equal
Two scientists acting together usually accomplish more than two loners each going their own way.The best scientific pairings are marriages of convenience in that they bring together the complementary talents of those involved.Give,for exampl,Francis' penchant for high-level crystallographic theor,there was no need for me also to master it.All I needed were its implications for interpreting DNA X-ray photographs.The possibilit,of cours,existed that Francis might err in some fashion I couldn' spo,but keeping good relations with others in the field outside our partnership meant that he would always have his ideas checked by others with even greater crystallographic talents.For my par,I brought to our two-man team a deep understanding of biology and a compulsive enthusiasm for solving what proved to be a fundamental problem of life.
An intelligent teammate can shorten your flirtation with a bad idea.For all too long I kept trying to build DNA models with the sugar phosphate back bone in the cente,convinced that if I put the backbone on the outsid,there would be no stereo chemical restriction on how it could fold up into a regular helix.Francis' scorn for this assertion made me reverse course much sooner than I would have otherwise.Soon I too realized that my past argument had been lousy an,in fac,the stereochemistry of the sugar-phosphate groups would of course move them to outer positions of helices that use approximately ten nucleotides to make a complete turn.
In genera,a scientific team of more than two is a crowded affair.Once you have three people working on a common objectiv,either one member effectively becomes the leader or the third eventually feels a less-than-equal partner and resents not being around when key decisions are made.Three-person operations also make it hard to assign credit.People naturally believe in the equal partnerships of successful duos—Rodgers and Hammerstei,Lewis and Clark.Most don' believe in the equal contributions of three-person crews.
Sit in the front row when a seminar' title intrigues you
By far the best way to profit from seminars that interest you is to sit in the front row.Not being bore,you do not risk the embarrassment of falling asleep in front of everybody' eyes.If you cannot follow the speaker' train of thought from where you ar,you are in a good place to interrupt.Chances are you are not alone in being lost and most everyone in the audience will silently applaud.Your prodding may in fact reveal whether the speaker indeed has a take-home message or has simply deluded himself into believing he does.Waiting until a seminar is over to ask questions is pathologically polite. You will probably forget where you got lost and start questioning results you actually understood.
No,if you have suspicions that a seminar will bore you but are not sure enough to risk skipping i,sit in the back row.There a dul,glazed expression will not be conspicuou,and if you walk ou,your departure may be thought temporary and compelled by the call of nature.Szilard did not follow this advic,habitually sitting in a front row and getting up abruptly in the middle of talks when he' had too much of too little.Those outside his close circle of friends were relieved when his inherent restlessness made him move on to a potentially more exciting domicile.
Extend yourself intellectually through courses that initially frighten you
All through my undergraduate day,I worried that my limited mathematical talents might keep me from being more than a naturalist.In deciding to go for the gen,whose essence was surely in its molecular propertie,there seemed no choice but to tackle my weakness head-on.Not only was math at the heart of virtually all physic,but the forces at work in three-dimensional molecular structures could not be described except with math.Only by taking higher math courses would I develop sufficient comfort to work at the leading edge of my fiel,even if I never got near the leading edge of math.And so my Bs in two genuinely tough math courses were worth far more in confidence capital than any A I would likely have received in a biology cours,no matter how demanding.Though I would never use the full extent of analytical methods I had learne,the Poisson distribution analyses needed to do most phage experiments soon became rather satisfyin,even in the age of slide rule,instead of a source of crippling anxiety.
1.a.His ideas of morality and idealism had to give way to practical action.
b.He could not control forces.
c.He soon discovered the fact.
2.a.The invasion outraged Congress as well as the American people.
b.Walter Karp has shown that this version contradicts the facts.
c.The truth is that the invasion was Wilson' idea from the start.
3.a.The compliments were very generous.
b.At that time he paid me the compliments.
c.I blush to remember them.
4.a.The students include extramura,interna,and both domestic and international ones.
b.The book is especially useful because the examples provided are not limited to a specific discipline.
c.Many students may find this book useful.
5.a.His faith is firmly rooted on a foundation of science and its methods.
b.Whitehead has a faith.
c.His faith aims high for knowledge of the heavens.
d.His faith is that modernity means the progress of knowledge.
6.a.How the values were fueling the war.
b.They had a firm belief.
c.The belief is that European values were not worth preserving.
d.The war was then devastating Europe.
7.a.He wrote it in The Politics ofExperience （1967）.
b.The set of processes are variously structured.
c.The result of socialization is the accepted definition of normality.
d.He wrote that the process of socialization can be construed as a set of processes.
e.The processes do not actualize human experience into a condition of maturity and fulfillment.
f.The processes deform human experience.
8.a.David Aers calls for a history.
b.The changes lie beneath a tradition.
c.He describes the tradition as "a seemingly homogeneou,uncontested clerical tradition embedded in a static culture".
d.He is the distinguished scholar in medieval studies.
e.The history exposes the contradiction,the conflict,and any discernible forces of changes.
9.a.All the colors of poetry can never paint natural objects in a manner.
b.The colors of poetry make the description be taken for a real landscape in such a manner.
c.The colors of poetry may be very splendid.
10.a.They are apparently willing to rest liberal education exclusively on the study of so-called great books.
b.The great works are typically involved in such selections.
c.I have substantial reservations about their willingness.
d.The works have indeed an undeniable power to set both mind and soul afire.
e.The power is a mora,intellectua,and emotional one.
有关翻译的标准，最有名的是严复提出的“信”（忠实于原文的意义内容）、“达”（译文通顺流畅）、“雅”（文辞要美化，给人以美感）。之后对标准的讨论，看法各有不同，相应地也出现了诸多翻译理论。无论怎样，过分追求表面（字词句）忠实于原文，势必导致译文艰涩聱牙，令人费解。为避免英式中文或中式英文，应在正确完整传递原文含义基础上，力求译文的地道通顺。我们提倡钱钟书先生的“化境”说：“既能不因语文习惯的差异而露出生硬牵强的痕迹，又能完全保存原作的风味，那就算得入于‘化境’。”翻译家程镇球指出：“中英两种文字各有各的特点和规律，不可能在形式上完全相等”，“翻译必须打破原文字面的约束，从文章通篇精神和上下文着眼，进行一番由此及彼、由表及里的思考，抓住原文的思想实质”。运用“灵活性”“更好地传译原文的精神实质”。这也是翻译家傅雷追求的“神似”。请仔细分析体会下面例句的翻译。
［ 例 1］ His irritation could not withstand the silent beauty of the night.
面对这宁静的良宵美景，他的恼怒不禁烟消云散了。
［ 例 2］ Unemployment has stubbornly refusedto contract for more than a decade.
失业人数总是居高不下 ，已经有十多个年头了。
［ 例 3］ Successful leaders are emotionally and intelligently oriented to the future—not weddedto the past.
成功的领导者无论是感情上还是理智上都着眼未来而不眷恋过去。
［ 例 4］ When autumn had come and gon,again it occurredto him that he could not have Judy Jones.He had to beat this into his mind but he convinced himself at last.
秋天来了又去了，他也想到自己跟裘迪·琼斯肯定已是婚姻无份了。要在心里接受这个想法并非易事，不过他终于还是说服了自己。
［ 例 5］ Kennedy was cut down before he had a fair chance at presidenting ，and his successors fellvictim to their own deficiencies of skil,honor or leadership.
肯尼迪很有希望在任总统期间大展宏图的，可惜惨遭暗算而夭折。其后的继任者们，或无能，或无耻，或拙于领导艺术，而皆受累。
［ 例 6］ The Presidency has survived hard times and ordinary men befor,and so has the romance Americans attach to it—the dream that it can still be made to work wonders if only Mr.Right comes along.
总统其职，真是历尽艰难时代，淘汰尽平庸之辈，以至于今日。因此，美国人随之也对它产生了一种浪漫的想法：梦想只要一旦有某位“合适先生”问世，它依然能够创造出赫赫奇迹来。
［ 例 7］ One is tempted at times to turn away in despair from the most delightful acquaintance—the picture of manlines,grac,simplicit,and honou,apparently rich in knowledge and humour—because of some enormous platitude he reverts t,some hopelessly stupid little dogma from which one knows that nothing can ever liberate him .
有时人们忍不住想在绝望中抛弃最令人欣慰的熟悉的自我——充满男子汉气概、儒雅、单纯、富有正义感，显然是一副知识渊博和具有幽默感的形象——因为他有时会变得平庸不堪，陷入愚蠢的小小教条之中而不能自拔。
［ 例 8］ There is something hostile in that soil.It either yield,and the foot sinks into a depressio,or else it is unexpectedly rigid and shar,pressing stones or crystals against the tread. A series ofthese little surprises exhausts .
好像脚下的地故意跟人为难似的，要么地上软绵绵的，让你走一步，脚便陷到地里去一下；但有时忽然又坚硬异常，步步都踩着些尖石子、碎玻璃之类的东西。这样深一脚，浅一脚，磕磕碰碰，直走得你精疲力竭。
［例9］ 彦成觉得自己理长，不屑向丽琳解释。
Yancheng felt he was entirely in the right.It wasn' even worth the effort of making explanations to Lilin.
［例10］ 如在解释上遇有分歧，应以中文本为准。
In case of any divergence of interpretatio,the Chinese text shall prevail.
［例11］ 经验证明，关起门来搞建设是不能成功的，中国的发展离不开世界。
Our experience shows that China cannot rebuild itself behind closed doors and that it cannot develop in isolation from the rest of the world.
［例12］ 北京的一些员工队伍庞大的公司承受着运行成本高和业务不断萎缩的双重压力，颇感处境艰难。
Companies with a big staff in Beijing find themselves squeezed between high operating costs and shrinking business.
［例13］ 陈善保从余家出来，心上犹有余怒。不过他责备自己不该失去控制，应当耐心说理。
Chen Shanbao had left the Yu hous,still consumed with rage.Nevertheles,he reproached himself for losing self-control when he should have reasoned patiently.
［例14］ 你很会护着她呀！可惜你们俩都变了脸色，不打自招了。我给你们遮掩，你还不知好歹。
You'e good at defending her！Too bad the looks on your faces betrayed your guilt.I covered up for yo,but you don' appreciate it.
［例15］ 全面贯彻新时代中国特色社会主义思想和基本方略，不断提高全党马克思主义理论水平。
We must ensure that the Thought of Socialism with Chinese Characteristics for a New Era and its basic principles are fully implemente,so as to raise the level of understanding of Marxism within the whole Party.
［例16］ 把人民拥护不拥护、赞成不赞成、高兴不高兴、答应不答应作为衡量一切工作得失的根本标准，着力解决好人民最关心最直接最现实的利益问题。
We must ensure that the basic criterion of our work is whether we have the people' suppor,acceptanc,satisfaction and approval.We must focus our efforts on addressing the most pressin,immediate issues that concern the people the most.
好的翻译对于原文不同的语言风格（包括口语或书面语、幽默诙谐或严肃正式等），以及诸多修辞手法，表达性格、感情等语言成分，应尽可能予以传神表达。
［ 例 17］ Don' expect comfort.You'e just got to be thankful if we get a bed to sleep on and a roof over our heads.
别指望有什么舒服的地方。咱们能找到房子，有张床睡觉，就谢天谢地了。
［ 例 18］ Becky' contempt for her husband grew greater every day."Do what you like—dine where you please—go and have ginger-beer and sawdust at Asthey’,or psalm-singing with Lady Jane—only don' expect me to busy myself with the boy."
蓓姬一天比一天瞧不起她丈夫。她说：“你爱干什么就干什么，你爱上哪儿吃饭就上哪儿吃饭。到亚斯托莱马戏场去喝姜汁啤酒、吃木屑也行，跟着珍夫人去唱圣诗也行，就是别指望我管孩子。”
［ 例 19］ How can a deep love seem a deep love.How can a smile seem a smile.At farewell feas,even the candle feeling our sadnes,weep as we d,all night long.
深沉的爱怎样才显得深沉，人们的笑容怎样才具有笑意，就连饯别宴会上的蜡烛也为之伤怀，通宵达旦泪相随。
［例20］ 朝闻道，夕死可矣。
If a man in the morning hears the Wa,he may die in the evening without regret.
［例21］ 你如果不能宽恕，那么我只求你不要生气，别以为我是戏弄你。因为我错虽错，都是不得已。
If you can' bring yourself to forgive m,then I ask you at least not to be angry.Don' think I meant to play with your feelings.For no matter how I wronged yo,it was all against my will.
［例22］ 我们党要始终成为时代先锋、民族脊梁，始终成为马克思主义执政党，自身必须始终过硬。
To remain as the vanguard and the backbone of the natio,and a Marxist ruling part,our Party must always hold itself to the highest standards.
［例23］ 不忘初心、牢记使命，说到底是为什么人、靠什么人的问题。以百姓心为心，与人民同呼吸、共命运、心连心，是党的初心，也是党的恒心。
Staying true to our founding mission i,in essenc,a matter of whom we serve and whose support sustains us.Our Party was founded for the people and has always been of one heart with the people.Bound to the people by an inseverable ti,the Party will always be in the service of the people to fulfill its mission.
［例24］ “啊，离休了，每月多少，不少吧？”向会客室打量了一下。
“ 还可以就是了！ "
"I see.You'e retired.How much pension do you receive each mon?Not too small a su,I gue?"he sai,eyeing the living room.
"Enough to keep me goin,that' all."
1.She has beauty stil,if it be not in its heyda,it is not yet in its autumn.
2.His subject opened out before hi,vaster and more significan,and he imagined a work that would put him for ever beside the great historians of the past.
3.In the middle of May when the weather balanced for a few days on the thin bridge that led to deep summer he turned in one night at Irene' house.
4.The approach to the management of foreign exchange reserves by central bankers varies across the glob,ranging from a policy of benign neglect to detailed and highly mathematical calculations of alternative moves to reduce risk and increase profitability.
5.你要觉得合适就干，不合适就不干。你自个儿看着办吧。
6.桌子上摆满了请客的美酒佳肴。
7.将采取各种措施，努力提高粮食增产中的科技含量。
英语中的词汇可以有多种含义，只有在结合上下文的基础上，准确无误地把握词意，选择恰当的含义，或对词义进行引申，或在抽象意义与具体意义之间转换变化，才能保证翻译正确。汉译英时同样需要仔细分析词语的意义，并考虑英语的搭配，选择合适的语言表达。切忌不顾语境而机械地逐词死译。
［ 例 1］ Ye,as it sometimes happens that a person departs his lif,who is really deserving of the praises the stone cutter curves over his bone;who is a good Christia,a good paren,chil,wife or husban;and who actually does have a disconsolate family to mourn his loss.
不过有时也有离开人世者称得起石匠刻在其墓碑上的溢美之词。真的是虔诚的教徒、慈爱的父母、孝顺的儿女、贤良的妻子、尽职的丈夫，其家人也的确哀思绵绵地悼念他的逝去。（一词多译）
［ 例 2］ For twins they are very dissimila,Colin is tall and active and Johnny is short and middle-aged.
虽说是孪生兄弟，但是他们差异很大，克林高大而活跃，约翰矮小而老成。（具体意义转化抽象意义）
［ 例 3］ These alternations of mood were the despair and joy of Ethan Frome.
她这样一会儿一种情绪，叫伊坦时而灰心，时而高兴。（含义引申）
［ 例 4］ The company applauded the clever deceptio,for none could tell when Chopin stopped and Liszt began.
在座的人对这种移花接木的巧妙手法无不拍手称快，因为谁也不知道什么时候肖邦停了下来，由李斯特接着弹奏下去。
［ 例 5］ Some fishing boats were becalmed just in front of us.Their shadows slep,or almost slep,upon the wate,a gentle quivering alone showing that it was not complete slee,or if slee,tha,it was sleep with dreams.
眼前不远，渔舟悠哉安静，樯影斜映水上，仿佛睡去。偶尔微微颤动，似又未曾熟睡，恍若惊梦。
［ 例 6］ As already discusse,the diseas,if present at al,is usually a rather steady and continuous process.
如上所述，此病一旦发生，就是顽症。
［ 例 7］ Many volume,rather than page,would be required to do justice to the statesme,soldier,philosopher,poet,historian,and other famous men of the Sung Dynasty.
要论述宋朝那些政治家、军人、哲学家、诗人、史学家和其他知名人士，用少量篇幅是不够的，恐怕要用若干卷才能说个分明。
［ 例 8］ No,I flattered myself tha,in spite of my inward terror,I had kept a complete command of my countenance.
我可以大言不惭地说，尽管我当时心中恐惧，但外表还相当镇静。
［ 例 9］ When I cook for my American friend,howeve,I have had to remember that some people prefer milder flavors.I'e gone easy on the hot chilies I knew from when I was a boy.
不过，当我给美国的朋友们做饭时，我得提醒自己有些人不喜欢吃太辣。我现在做饭时的辣椒用量已经比我小时候吃的少多了。
［ 例 10］ It' natural for couples to argue once in a while.But whether those two people will have a long future together often depends on how well they work out their differences.Conflicts shouldn' always be about one person being right and the other wrong.There has to be a healthy give and take.Without that ability to negotiat,couples can' survive.
夫妻间有时发生争吵是很正常的。但是两人是否能长久地一起生活下去通常取决于他们能不能调和彼此间的差异。在有冲突时，并不一定要分出谁对谁错。两人之间必须有健康的商量妥协。如果两人都不肯低头，那日子过不长久。
［ 例 11］ The memory of anyone distinguished in life would be enough to fill our need for a beacon light and to show us how we can bring our soul to the sheltered harbor of virtue where it no longer has to pass the winter amid the storms of life or be shipwrecked in the deep water of evil by the successive billows of passion.
每当想起那些生命不凡之士，都足以满足我们对人生灯塔的需求，并为我们指明如何引领灵魂至受庇护的美德港湾。在这里，灵魂再也无须在生命的风暴中穿越寒冬，亦不必因持续不断的滚滚激情而湮没于罪恶的深渊。
汉译英时特别需仔细揣摩词语的含义 ， 不能简单按照字面翻选择对应的英语词汇 ， 在 把握好汉语语义的基础上选择恰当的英文词语 ， 并注意英文词语的搭配关系 ， 避免中式英 语 。 例如 " 关心 " 一词根据具体情况可译成英文不同的词 。 关心人民生活 ：to care about the well-being of the peopl; 关心局势发展 ：to follow the developments closel; 共同关 心的问题 issues of mutual interest/concer, 我们关心中国是否能保持持续发展 ：We would like to know whether China will be able to achieve a sustainable development. 领导人对两国关系非常关心 ：Our leaders have taken interest in the development of our bilateral relations.
［例12］ 他们两人各自一条心，日常在一起非常客气，连小争小吵都没有。
They each nursed their own thought,but in daily encounters they were extremely polite and avoided even the smallest disagreements.
［例13］ 他抱薄利畅销的宗旨，跟鸿渐生意成交。
Keeping his objective of low profits but wide markets in min,he came to terms with Fang.
［例14］ 形成强大国内市场，构建新发展格局。
Create a robust domestic market and foster a new development pattern.
［例15］ 坚持创新驱动发展，加快发展现代产业体系。
Pursue innovation-driven development and accelerate the creation of the modern industrial system.
［例16］ 马克思主义的普遍真理一定要同中国革命的具体实践相结合，如果不结合，那就不行。
The universal truth of Marxism must be integrated with the concrete practice of the Chinese revolutio,or else we will get nowhere.
［例17］ 要贯彻落实新形势下党内政治生活的若干准则，让党员、干部在党内政治生活中经常接受政治体检，打扫政治灰尘，净化政治灵魂，增强政治免疫力。
Party members and officials must act in accordance with the Regulations for Political Activities within the Party in the New Er,and have regular political"health checks"through intra-Party activities.We can thereby"sweep off the dust"，purify our souls politicall,and boost our immune system in the political realm.
［例18］ 大师、大家，不是说有大派头，而是说要有大作品。如果不把心思放在创作精品上，只想走捷径、搞速成，是成不了大师、成不了大家的。
Great writers and scholars do not put on air,but produce great works.If writers and scholars do not focus on creating fine work,but take shortcuts and seek instant benefit,they cannot grow into masters.
［例19］ 各级领导干部特别是高级干部要练就一双政治慧眼，不畏浮云遮望眼，切实担负起党和人民赋予的政治责任。
Official,especially the senior official,should have good politicaljudgment.We should let no fleeting phenomena cloud our visio,and shoulder the political responsibilities entrusted to us by the Party and the people.
［例20］ 诚然，作为一种治学方法，我们绝不应对文本的可资利用的注释置之不顾，尤其那些被认为是这一领域的权威性的注释成果。
To be sur,as a method of learnin,we cannot afford to ignore the available exegetical commentaries on the tex,especially those that are considered standard scholarship on the subject.
［例21］ 尊重人民主体地位和首创精神，始终保持同人民群众的血肉联系，凝聚起众志成城的磅礴力量，团结带领人民共同创造历史伟业。
We must respect the people' principal position and pioneering spiri,always maintain close ties with the,channel their strength into an invincible forc,and unite and lead them to create historic achievements.
［例22］ 要最大限度用好全球创新资源，全面提升我国在全球创新格局中的位势，提高我国在全球科技治理中的影响力和规则制定能力。
We will use to the maximum global innovation resource,raise China' status in the global innovation landscape across the boar,and increase our influence and ability to participate in rule-making in global scientific and technological governance.
［例23］ 经过一番冷场，傅今点了余楠的名。余楠显然是早有准备的。他从自己听了首长的讲话如何受到鼓舞谈起，直谈到今后要发挥一技之长，和同志们同心协力，尽量做出贡献。
After an awkward silenc,Fu Jin called on Yu Na,who was evidently well prepared.He spoke of how the official' speech fired his enthusias,and how from this day forth he would employ all his skill,join heart and hand with his comrade,and contribute to the best of his ability.
［例24］ 事业发展永无止境，共产党人的初心永远不能改变。唯有不忘初心，方可告慰历史、告慰先辈，方可赢得民心、赢得时代，方可善作善成、一往无前。
As our cause progresse,no Chinese Communist should ever forget our original aspiration.This is the only way to honor history and our predecessor,to win popular support and uphold the call of the er,and to accomplish our deeds with indomitable will.
［例25］ 在星光下听水声，听近村晚钟声，听河畔倦牛刍草声，是我康桥经验中最神秘的一种：大自然的优美、宁静，调谐在这星光与波光的默契中不期然地淹入了你的性灵。
To lie beneath the stars and listen to the sound of the wate,to the sound of the nearby village bell,to the weary munching of cattle grazing on the riverbank—this was one of my profound experiences of Cambridg:nature' exquisite beauty and tranquility merge in silent agreement with the starligh,with the wave-ligh,unexpectedly flooding your soul.
［例26］ 第一部写新中国不拘一格收罗人才，人物一一出场。第二部写这些人确实需要“洗澡”。第三部写运动中这群人各自不同的表现。“洗澡”没有得到预期的效果，原因是谁都没有自觉自愿。
Part One describes how New China recruited talents from every quarter.The characters come on stage one by one.Part Two shows how these people really were in need of"washing".Part Three relates how the characters conducted themselves during the campaign.The"washing"does not have the anticipated effec,because none of them submits to it voluntarily.
1.Too clearl,it is a topic we shall do no justice to in this place.
2.Com,I' sure you'e flattering u,though of course we love it.
3.Action and foresight will be needed as well as learning and reputation.
4.This is a well-thought-out plan.What remains now is how to carry it out.
5.I was in several minds how to dress myself on the important da,being divided between my desire to appear to advantag,and my apprehensions of putting on anything that might impair my severely practical character in the eyes of the Misses Spenlow.
6. 这是他们夫妻之间的事情 ，你去插一脚干吗？
7. 她既不当面恭维人家 ，也不背后说人坏话。从这两点来说她是值得称赞的。
8. 加强同发展中国家的团结与合作是中国外交政策的基本立足点 。
9. 咱们今天的会开得非常成功 ，同志们都畅所欲言，表达了各自的意见。
As we kno,false dichotomies and divisions may be counterproductive in a philosophical inquiry.We need to use analysis.There is certainly much benefit in this method.It may even be indispensable.Nevertheles,we need to use it carefully lest we miss the wood for the trees.For instanc,suppose I as:What is the proper work of a scienti?The primafaciae answer would b:To become a good scientist.This is certainly a legitimate answer.Aristotle' observation wa:"The virtue of a thing is relative to its proper work".There is no doubt tha,just as young lyre-players play the lyre to become good lyre player,so also young scientists should engage in science to become good scientists.The life of the individua,howeve,is broader than playing the lyr,broader than science.It is one and the same individual who lives as a lyre-playe,or as a scientis,and also as a person in many other areas of life.There are no hermetic compartments within the person.This suggests that the most desirable situation is one where the individual has a unifying aim that goes beyond specific practice,and embraces all of them. We refer to this one purpose when we acknowledge that the ultimate aim of an individual should be notjust to become a good lyre-playe,or a good scientis,but ultimately to become a good person.