定金制度始于闪米特法律圈,该制度的产生背景是在闪米特人法律中买卖等约定无拘束力。倘若交付了定金,又不愿遭受定金罚则带来的不利影响,双方当事人均会履行并不具拘束力的协议,从而该定金实为立约定金。经由希腊法,立约定金传入了罗马。由于罗马法上有适用范围广泛的要式口约,即使在合意合同出现之前,立约定金在罗马法中也不占据重要地位。至古典法时期,进一步明确了定金的交付仅具有证明当事人间的合同关系的效力,所谓证约定金由此得以明确。在优士丁尼法中,意定的书面合同得到了承认,在书面形式完成前,约定无拘束力,立约定金从而有了新的适用空间。另外,在当事人有相关约定的情况下,所交付的定金也可以是违约定金。在日耳曼法中,当事人的约定也不具有拘束力,一方履行其全部义务会使对方负担履行对待给付的义务,嗣后一方不必提供全部给付,对方也不必在受领给付后立即提供对待给付,如此演化出了成约定金制度,定金的交付使得当事人的约定具有拘束力。在日耳曼法后期,定金也可用于松动合同的拘束力,这种定金为解约定金。
近代以来,大陆法系的民法典、债法典多规定了定金制度。法国、奥地利、德国、瑞士、日本、苏联(以及俄罗斯)关于定金的规定,在定金的体系位置、定金类型、定金的作用机制、定金是否予以抵扣、定金与其他民法制度的关系等方面有或大或小的差异,并且在德国,定金制度已无多少实际意义。
在我国,古代法有“定金”“定洋”“定钱”之制,其兼有预付款与成约定金的性质。大陆法系的定金制度在我国得到采用始于民国《民律草案》。就我国的状况来说,定金制度在实务中具有重要意义,使用频率较高。违约定金在《担保法》《合同法》中得到了明确的规定,《民法典》承继了相关规定。《担保法解释》就立约定金、成约定金、解约定金也作了规定。此外,证约定金在学理和实务中也被承认。我国关于定金的法律条文数量较多,为涉及定金的纠纷的处理提供了明确、可靠的依据。但同时,在定金规则设计方面仍有可加推敲或缺失之处,在学理层面也有不准确的认识,比如将定金合同规定为要物合同,规定除适用解约定金的定金罚则外还可主张违约损害赔偿,规定多交少交定金视为变更定金合同,对于违约定金与违约损害赔偿并用可区分情形作不同的处理,违约定金与违约金的并用不宜一概排斥。有鉴于此,有必要对定金制度作全面研究,以澄清认识、消除误解,明确创设定金法律关系的要求,确定各类定金的效力,从而为解释定金规定,进而完善定金规定,妥当地处理定金法律纠纷提供参考。
[1] Thomas,Arra in Sale in Justinian’s Law, 24 Tijdschrift voor Rechtsgeschidenis (1956),253,254.
[2] Thomas,Arra in Sale in Justinian’s Law, 24 Tijdschrift voor Rechtsgeschidenis (1956),253,256.
[3] Zulueta, The Roman Law of Sale ,Oxford University Press,1945,p.23.
[4] McAuley,One Thousand Years of Arra, 23 McGill Law Journal (1977),693,695.
[5] McAuley,One Thousand Years of Arra, 23 McGill Law Journal (1977),693,696.
[6] Watson, The Law of Obligations in Later Roman Republic ,Oxford University Press,1965,pp.46-47.
[7] Watson, The Law of Obligations in Later Roman Republic ,Oxford University Press,1965,pp.49-50.
[8] Watson, The Law of Obligations in Later Roman Republic ,Oxford University Press,1965,p.51.
[9] Crook, Law and Life of Rome ,Cornell University Press,1967,p.220.
[10] McAuley,One Thousand Years of Arra, 23 McGill Law Journal (1977),693,696.
[11] McAuley,One Thousand Years of Arra, 23 McGill Law Journal (1977),693,698.
[12] Gaius,Provincial Edict,book 10;D.18.1.35.pr.See Watson ed., The Digest of Justinian ,Vol.2,University of Pennsylvania University,1985,p.60.
[13] McAuley,One Thousand Years of Arra, 23 McGill Law Journal (1977),693,699.
[14] Crook, Law and Life of Rome ,Cornell University Press,1967,p.221.
[15] Zulueta, The Roman Law of Sale ,Oxford University Press,1945,p.23.
[16] Zulueta, The Roman Law of Sale ,Oxford University Press,1945,p.23.
[17] Thomson,Arra in Sale in Justinian’s Law, 5 Irish Jurist (1970),179,184.
[18] Thomson,Arra in Sale in Justinian’s Law, 5 Irish Jurist (1970),179,184-185.
[19] Zulueta, The Roman Law of Sale ,Oxford University Press,1945,p.23.
[20] Thomson,Arra in Sale in Justinian’s Law, 5 Irish Jurist (1970),179,186.
[21] Mousourakis, Fundamentals of Roman Private Law ,Springer Verlag,2012,p.219.
[22] Thomas, The Institutes of Justinian : Text , Translation and Commentary ,Juta & Company Limited,1975,p.226.
[23] Birks, The Roman Law of Obligations ,Oxford University Press,2014,p.43.
[24] Birks, The Roman Law of Obligations ,Oxford University Press,2014,p.48.
[25] Thomas,Arra in Sale in Justinian’s Law, 24 Tijdschrift voor Rechtsgeschidenis (1956),253,267.
[26] Birks, The Roman Law of Obligations ,Oxford University Press,2014,pp.48-49.
[27] Buckland, A Textbook of Roman Law from Augustus to Justinian ,3rd ed.,revised by Peter Stein,Cambridge University Press,1966,pp.481-482.另外据此书介绍,早期关于I.3.23.pr.还有其他一些解读,比如:非书面买卖中的受损害方可以选择适用定金罚则还是损害赔偿;“无论有书面形式还是无书面形式”是指定金是否在书面文件里被提及。
[28] Thomas, Textbook of Roman Law ,North-Holland Publishing Company,1976,p.281.
[29] Thomas, The Institutes of Justinian : Text , Translation and Commentary ,Juta& Company Limited,1975,p.231.在D.18.3.6.中,斯凯沃拉(Scaevola)称,就没收条款(forfeiture clause)来说,如果买方有过错,没有遵守合同条款,卖方选择执行合同,土地买卖取消,以定金的方式或在其他名义下所交付的由卖方保留。在D.18.3.8.中,斯凯沃拉称,一个妇女将土地卖给了盖尤斯·塞乌斯(Gaius Seius)并且得到了定金,另外约定了支付余额的时间,还约定如果买方不按约定的时间支付将丧失定金,买卖也取消。买方证明,到了约定的支付时间,他准备支付剩余款项(并将装了余款的钱袋密封,证人也在钱袋上盖了章),但是卖方不在。次日,国库通知买方在履行对国库的义务前不得向卖地的妇女清偿。就买方根据合同条款要回定金的问题,斯凯沃拉的观点是,买方不受丧失条款的制裁。Watson ed., The Digest of Justinian ,Vol.2.,University of Pennsylvania,1998,pp.72-73.
[30] McAuley,One Thousand Years of Arra, 23 McGill Law Journal (1977),693,704,705.
[31] Birks, The Roman Law of Obligations ,Oxford University Press,2014,p.47.
[32] Huebner, A History of Germanic Private Law ,translated by Philbrick,Little Brown and Company,1918,p.503.
[33] Huebner, A History of Germanic Private Law ,translated by Philbrick,Little Brown and Company,1918,p.503.
[34] Huebner, A History of Germanic Private Law ,translated by Philbrick,Little Brown and Company,1918,p.505.
[35] Huebner, A History of Germanic Private Law ,translated by Philbrick,Little Brown and Company,1918,p.505.
[36] Huebner, A History of Germanic Private Law ,translated by Philbrick,Little Brown and Company,1918,p.505.
[37] Huebner, A History of Germanic Private Law ,translated by Philbrick,Little Brown and Company,1918,p.506.
[38] Huebner, A History of Germanic Private Law ,translated by Philbrick,Little Brown and Company,1918,p.507.