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熟练掌握各项基本概念的定义，并能举例说明。此外，还必须灵活运用基本知识，观察、分析实际语言现象，从中归纳总结出构词法、句法、形态音系学中的规则。
A good command of all the definitions of the basic concepts in this chapter is required, together with their explanation with examples.Besides, it's important to apply the knowledge to ob-serve and analyze the actual language phenomena to summarize the rules in morphology, syntax and morphophonology.
自然的有界限的单位；支配一组形式的共同因素；一个语法单位。
（1）稳定性；
（2）相对连续；
（3）最小的自由形式。
（1）可变词和不变词。可变词有形态变化，即词的一部分保持不变，另一部分有规则地变化以实现不同的语法功能。不变词没有形态变化。
（2）语法词（功能词）和词汇词（实义词）。表达语法意义的词是语法词。具有词汇意义的（指代物质、动作和性质）的词称为词汇词。
（3）封闭类词和开放类词。封闭类词指数目相对确定、有限的词，其数目不会有规律地增加；开放类词的数目随社会发展不断地、经常地增加。
（4）词类：在传统的名词、代词、形容词、动词、副词、介词、连词、感叹词和冠词的基础上，可新增助词、助动词、代词形式、限定词。
语素是最小的语言单位，不能再进一步分成更小的单位而不破坏或彻底改变词汇意义或语法意义。
形态学研究词的内部结构以及词的构造规则，涉及屈折变化和词的形成两个领域。
（1）自由语素和黏着语素。能单独出现独立成词的是自由语素，所有单语素词都是自由语素，由自由语素构成的多语素词为复合词；不能单独出现，必须跟至少一个其他语素共同出现的语素叫作黏着语素。
（2）词根、词缀和词干。除复合词以外的多语素词，可进一步分出词根和词缀。词根是去掉所有词缀后剩下来的部分。每个词都包含一个词根语素，它可以是自由语素或黏着语素。词缀指只能附加于另一个语素（词根或词干）上的构词成分，分前缀、中缀、后缀三类。词缀都是黏着语素。词干是能加屈折词缀的语素（组合），它相当于词根或词根加派生词缀。
（3）屈折词缀（语素）和派生词缀（语素）。屈折词缀不改变词类，只在词干后面添加一个微小或微妙的语法意义；派生词缀常常改变词汇的意义和词类。英语中屈折词缀多为后缀，但派生词缀可以是前缀或后缀。
屈折变化是通过附加屈折词缀表现语法关系，如数、人称、限定性、体和格，不改变所附加词语的语法类。
复合词由一个以上的词汇语素构成，或者由两个独立的词连接起来构成，分为向心复合词和离心复合词。
派生词能表明词根和词缀之间的关系，以派生方式生成的词很多。英语中，每个单词一般只有一个屈折词缀，但派生词缀可以有多个。
（1）语素和音位的区别和联系。音位是语音中的最小单位，语素是语法中的最小单位。单个音位可以代表一个语素，但也可以与语素无关。
（2）语素结构和音位结构。语素可以是单音位的，也可以是单音节的或多音节的。
（3）语素变体。有些语素在任何语境中都只有一个形式，还有的有多个变化形式，如英语中复数意义的多种表现形式，每一种都是复数语素的语素变体。有些语素形式能表示不同意义的语素，“-s”可以表示复数、人称/限定性，也可以表示所有格。
（4）形态音系学又叫形态音位学，研究音系学和形态学的关系，对影响语素形式的音位要素和影响音位形式的语法要素进行分析和分类。语素的形式可能会受到音位要素和形态因素的限制。
词汇变化的方法有新创词语、混成法、缩写词、缩略语、逆构词法、类推构词、借词。音位变化指因为语音上的改变而导致的形式变化，有脱落、添加、换位和同化；语义变化包括词义扩大、词义缩小、词义转移、词性变换、俗词源；拼写的变化，文字记录语音系统，因为语音变化自然引起文字的变化。
Word is a unit of expression （spoken or written）that has universal intuitive recognition by native-speakers.It is a physically definable unit; the common factor underlying a set of forms and a grammatical unit.
（1）stability
（2）relative uninterruptibility
（3）a minimum free form
（1）variable and invariable words
Variable words have inflective endings, i.e., part of the word remains constant while the other part changes regularly to fulfill different grammatical functions.Invariable words, such as “since, when, hello”, do not have inflective endings.
（2）grammatical words and lexical words
Those expressing grammatical meanings, like conjunctions, prepositions and pronouns are grammatical words.Those having lexical meanings, i.e., referring to substance, action and quality, like nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs are lexical words.
（3）closed-class words and open-class words
The closed-class is one whose membership is fixed or limited such as pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, etc.The open-class is one whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives and many adverbs.
（4）word class: Besides the traditional noun, pronoun, adjective, verb, adverb, preposition, conjunction, interjection and article, particles, auxiliaries, pro-form and determiners can be added.
Morpheme is the smallest unit of language, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.
Morphology studies the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed, including inflection and word formation.
（1）free morpheme and bound morpheme
Free morphemes are those which may occur alone or constitute words by themselves.All monomorphemic words are free morphemes.And polymorphemic words, which consist wholly of free morphemes, are compounds.
Bound morphemes cannot occur alone.They must appear with at least another morpheme.
（2）root, affix and stem
Poly-morphemic words other than compounds may be divided into roots and affixes.
A root is the base form of a word that cannot further be analyzed without total loss of identity.All words contain a root morpheme, which may be a free morpheme or a bound morpheme.
An affix is the collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme （the root or stem）, which has three subtypes, prefix, suffix and infix.All the affixes are bound morphemes.
A stem is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added.It can be equivalent to a root, or a root and a derivational affix.
（3）inflectional affix and derivational affix
Inflectional affixes do not change the word class of the word but only add a minute or delicate grammatical meaning to the stem.
Derivational affixes often change the lexical meaning and the word class.In English, inflectional affixes are mostly suffixes （e.g.drums, walks, Mary's）, but derivational affixes can be prefixes （e.g.suburban, online, depart）or suffixes （e.g.teacher, workable）.
Inflection is the manifestation of grammatical relationship through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and case, which do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached.
Compound refers to those words that consist of more than one lexical morpheme, or the way to join two separate words to produce a single form.Compounds can be divided into the endocentric and the exocentric compound.
Derivation shows the relation between roots and affixes.Forms derived from derivation are relatively large and potentially open.In English, there is usually one productive inflectional affix per word, but multiple derivational affixes are allowed, such as joyfulness, effectively, contradiction, etc.
（1）morpheme and phoneme
A phoneme is the smallest unit of sound and a morpheme is the smallest unit in grammar.A single phoneme may represent a single morpheme, but they are not identical, e.g.the phoneme /z/represents the plural morpheme in “boys” but nothing in “raise”.
（2）morphemic structure and phonological structure
Morphemes may be represented by phonological structures, which are monophonemic, monosyllabic or polysyllabic.
（3）allomorph
Some morphemes have a single form in all contexts, such as dog, cat, etc.Some others may have considerable variation, i.e., a morpheme may have alternate shapes or phonetic forms called the allomorph, such as the allomorphs of the plural morpheme {-s~-z~-iz~-ai~-i~-n~-o}.Some morphemic shapes represent different morphemes and thus have different meanings, e.g.the morphemic shape {-s} can express plurality in “tables,” person/finiteness in “talks” and case in “boy's”.
（4）morphophonology or morphophonemics
Morphophonology or morphophonemics is a branch of linguistics referring to the analysis and classification of the phonological factors that affect the appearance of morphemes, and the grammatical factors that affect the appearance of phonemes.It studies the interrelationship between phonology and morphology.
Apart from compound and derivation, lexical change includes invention, blending, abbreviation, acronym, back-formation, analogical creation and borrowing.
Phonological change is related to language variation in the phonological system of language.It refers to changes in sound leading to changes in form, like loss, addition, metathesis and assimilation.
Semantic change includes broadening, narrowing, meaning shift, conversation and folk etymology.
Orthographic change—since writing is a recording of the sound system in English, phonological changes will no doubt set off graphitic changes.