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3.2 主题阅读与翻译例文
1．Two years ago,a piece of faulty computer code infected Iran's nuclear program and destroyed many of the centrifuges used to enrich uranium ［1］ .Some observers declared this apparent sabotage to be the harbin-ger of a new form of warfare ［2］ .But what do we really know about cyber conflict?
2．The cyber domain of computers and related electronic activities is a complex man-made environment,and human adversaries ［3］ are purposeful and intelligent.Mountains and oceans are hard to move,but portions of cyberspace can be turned on and off by throwing a switch.It is far cheaper and quicker to move electrons across the globe than to move large ships long distances.
3．The costs of developing those vessels muhiple carrier task forces and submarine fleets create enormous barriers to entry,enabling US naval dominance.But the barriers to entry in the cyber domain are so low that non-state actors and small states can play a significant role at low cost.
4．In my book The Future of Power,I argue that the diffusion of power away from governments is one of this century's great political shifts.Cyberspace is a perfect example. ［4］ Large countries like the US,Russia,Britain,France,and China have greater capacity than other states and non-state actors to control the sea,air,or space,but it makes little sense to speak of dominance in cyberspace.If anything,dependence on complex cyber systems for support of military and economic activities creates new vulnerabilities in large states ［5］ that can be exploited by non-state actors.
5．Four decades ago,the US Department of Defense created the Internet,today,by most accounts,the US remains the leading country in terms of its military and societal use.But greater dependence on net-worked computers and communication leaves the US more vulnerable to attack than many other countries,and cyberspace has become a major source of insecurity,because,at this stage of technological develop-ment,offense prevails over defense there.
6．The term"cyber attack"covers a wide variety of actions ［6］ ,ranging from simple probes to defacing websites,denial of service,espionage,and destruction.Similarly,the term''cyber war"is used loosely to cover a wide range of behaviors,reflecting dictionary definitions of war that range from armed conflict to any hostile contest(for example,"war between the sexes"or"war on drugs").
7．At the other extreme，some experts use a narrow definition of cyber war：a“bloodless war”among states that consists solely of electronic conflict in cyberspace.But this avoids the important interconnections between the physical and virtual layers of eyberspace.As the Stuxnet（超级工厂病毒）virus that infected Iran's nuclear program showed，software attacks can have very real physical effects.
8．A more useful definition of cyber war is hostile action in cyberspace whose effects amplify or are.e-quivalent to major physical violence ［7］ .In the physical world，governments have a near-monopoly on large-scale use of force，the defender has an intimate knowledge of the terrain，and attacks end because of attri-tion（削弱）or exhaustion.Both resources and mobility are costly.
9．In the cyber world,by contrast,actors are diverse(and sometimes anonymous),physical distance is immaterial,and some forms of offense are cheap.Because the Internet was designed for ease of use rather than security,attackers currently have the advantage over defenders.Technological evolution,including ef-forts to"reengineer"some systems for greater security ［8］ ,might eventually change that,but,for now,it remains the case.The larger party has limited ability to disarm or destroy the enemy,occupy territory,or use counterforce strategies effectively.
10．Cyber war,though only incipient at this stage,is the most dramatic of the potential threats.Major states with elaborate technical and human resources could,in principle,create massive disruption and physical destruction through cyber attacks on military and civilian targets.Responses to cyber war include a form of interstate deterrence through denial and entanglement,offensive capabilities,and designs for rapid network and infrastructure recovery if deterrence fails.At some point,it may be possible to reinforce these steps with certain rudimentary norms and aims control,but the world is at an early stage in this process.
11．If one treats so-called"hacktivism"by ideological groups ［9］ as mostly a disruptive nuisance at this stage,there remain four major categories of cyber threats to national security,each with a different time ho-rizon:cyber war and economic espionage are largely associated with states,and cyber crime and cyber ter-rorism are mostly associated with non-state actors.For the US,the highest costs currently stem from espio-nage and crime,but over the next decade or so,war and terrorism could become greater threats than they are today.
12．Moreover,as alliances and tactics evolve,the categories may increasingly overlap ［10］ .In the view of Admiral Mike McConnell,America's former director of national intelligence,"Sooner or later,terror groups will achieve cyber-sophistication.It's like nuclear proliferation,only far easier."
13．The world is only just beginning to see glimpses of cyber war?In the denial of service attacks that accompanied the conventional war in Georgia in 2008,or the recent sabotage of Iranian centrifuges.States have the greatest capabilities,but non-state actors are more likely to initiate a catastrophic attack.A"cy-ber 9/11"may be more likely than the often-mentioned"cyber Pearl Harbor" ［11］ .It is time for states to sit down and discuss how to limit this threat to world peace.
(Joseph S.Nye,a former U.S.assistant secretary of defense and chairman of the U.S.National Intelli-gence Council,is a professor of Harvard University and one of the world's foremost scholars of international re-lations.He co-founded the important liberal institutionalist approach to international relations,and introduced the idea that states and other international actors possess more or less soft power.)
［翻译提示］
1．…destroyed many of the centrifuges used to enrich uranium：centrifuge的意思是“离心机”、“离心泵”。enrich的意思是“使丰富”、“使变浓”。本句说的是美国对伊朗进行的一次网络战，利用了一条计算机的编误密码就把伊朗用于铀浓缩的离心机给摧毁了。
2．this apparent sabotage to be the harbinger of a new form of warfare：harbinger的意思是“先兆”、“先遣队”、“先遣人员”。sabotage意为“消极怠工”、“搞破坏”。这部分的意思是“这种明显的新的战争形式的先兆”。
3．human adversaries：adversaries是由形容词变来的名词，指“逆境、对立面”，指人时，说的是“对手”或“敌手”。
4．Cyberspace is a perfect example：根据上下文可以看出，“网络空间就是个最佳的例证”意指从美国对伊朗的核设施进行网络破坏的例子说明网络空间可以用来进行比枪炮更有效的战争。
5．create new vulnerabilities in large states：vulnerability的意思是“脆弱性”。这里意指网络战争甚至能够使一些大国不用采取行动就能使其对手变得脆弱而瘫痪。
6．The term“cyber attack”covers a wide variety of actions：意为“网络攻击”这个说法涵盖了各式各样的行动。
7．whose effects amplify or are equivalent to major physical violence：amplify的意思是“放大”、“加强”。be equivalent to的意思是“相当于”。这一段的意思是：其（网络战争的）效果强化了主要的物质暴力活动的效果，或（至少是）与之相当。
8．to“reengineer”some systems for greater security：reengineer是个少见的动词，翻译时不能说“重新工程”，而只能说“重新设计”。for greater security在句中作目的状语，故这部分的意思应为“为了更加安全，需要重置系统”。
9．If one treats so-called“hacktivism”by ideological groups：翻译本句的one treats时，须注意泛指人称，这里指的是对某种客观情况的设想，by ideological groups可以看作是the so-called“hacktiv-ism”launched by some ideological groups，即由某些意识形态组织发动的网络战。若想译出one的意思，就可以说“如果人们把某些意识形态组织发动的所谓‘黑客行动主义’……的话，网络威胁即可分为四类……”，但这样翻译比较别扭，于是就译为“如果在现阶段把意识形态组织所谓的‘黑客行动主义’看作主要算是搞破坏的妨害行为，那么……”即可。
10．the categories may increasingly overlap：overlap一词指“重叠交叉”。
11．the often-mentioned“cyber Pearl Harbor”：经常被提及的“网络珍珠港”，这里把网络攻击比作1942年日本对美国珍珠港发动的偷袭。
1．在20世纪50到60年代，电子技术的重要发展促成了计算机研发热潮。1958年，晶体管用技术的成熟导致了计算机的小型化 ［1］ ，1966年又制成了第一批逻辑集成电路 ［2］ 。1965年，随着微型机的开发，在商用机开发方面出现了里程碑式的进展。
2．然而，在家用计算机市场方面 ［3］ ，1971年随着微处理机的研发成功向前迈出了一大步。大规模集成电路的应用使得在微小的物质空间内能够进行综合性（复杂的通用）计算。由于其价格降到了可承受的水平 ［4］ ，使得其批量生产技术得以促进。第一台微处理器问世六年之后，家用电脑市场开始蓬勃发展。虽然其价格约为1，000美元，有钱人开始为自己安装第一批苹果机了！
3．1978年中期，推出了价格合理的Commondore PET型和Tandy TRS 80型微机。这两种类型的微型机在推广家用计算机上产生了重大影响，为不具备使用技术者安装自己的计算机开辟了前景。到1979年，市场真的启动了，新机器的开发速度惊人。这一年见证了英特尔8088和8086微处理器的开发，这两种机器对其后IBM苹果个人机 ［5］ 的开发发挥了重要的作用。
4．1980到1982年间，当克里夫·辛克莱（Clive Sinclair）的创新为真正打开家庭用众开辟了计算机时代时，应当说这是通过ZX80、ZX8081及这一谱系产品实现的。衡量这些产品的成功可由迄今为止依然在应用它们这一事实来说明。
5．在国内市场上，在继续开发Commondore C-64、Atari和Amiga系列类型机的同时，喜欢的国内市场发展，后两种机型在国内游戏机市场上发展非常火爆 ［6］ 。1983年，另一个创新家，以艾伦·苏格（Alan Sugar）和他的阿姆斯（Amstrad PC1512）款式在市场上获得成功。这是IBM系列的首次克隆，为IBM系列开辟了广泛的受众。第一批PC1512机市场售价在450美元左右，显然比实用（真正的）个人电脑（可能是指IBM出的个人电脑）更便宜、更快。由于IBM个人机技术牢固地确立了它在商业界中的地位，更多新近开发的机型大部分都集中于如何使之更小、更快、存储更大上。IBM系列的主要限制性是由其内部体系结构造成的。不过，其目前受到的攻击及其解决方案无疑能为该系列产品赋以新的生命力。国内游戏机市场似乎已经摆脱了通用计算机系列，而转向了便携式专用游戏机系列了 ［7］ 。
［翻译提示］
1．计算机的小型化：the miniaturization of computer。
2．逻辑集成电路：logic integrated circuits，后来发展成了大规模集成电路，即the large scale in-tegrated circuits。
3．家用计算机、个人计算机与商用计算机：即home computer，personal computer，commercialized computer。
4．其价格降到了可承受的水平：bring the price down to affordable levels。afford作为动词，意指“买得起”，如afford to buy a car.
5．IBM公司：全称为：International Business Machines Company，即美国的国际商用机器公司，是最早开发出苹果机系列的公司。
6．Commondore C-64、Atari和Amiga：都是1978年以来由Atari（雅达利）发行的游戏机。Atari汉语译名为“美洲虎”；Amiga译名为“世嘉”。Atari发布的最新家用游戏主机Atari 5 200超级系统在我国也很流行。现在Commodore AMIGA CD32游戏机仍很流行。
7．便携式专用游戏机：可译为specialized portable games machines。