《乐记》中中国音乐的传统观念——音乐的双重视角:宇宙的和政治的——音乐属于上天,并和人性中圣洁的一面相呼应——音乐是朝廷改善施政和个人提高修养的工具——不承认音乐的娱乐功能。
古琴的思想是一个独立的思想体系,是在历史长河中,由文人在对“琴道”的不断追求和完善过程中逐渐形成的。不同的因素加速了这一思想体系的形成,更有多方面的影响决定了它的发展方向。在后面的章节中我将尽力把这一发展过程勾勒清楚。因为古琴思想体系的规则从没有编撰成一个集大成的文本,我们只能从各种文学资源中收集材料,再通过这些材料,使我们对这一体系有更完整的认识。
在开始这项相当艰巨的工作之前,我们必须对中国音乐的概貌有所认识。幸运的是,有一本特殊的文献保存了下来,使我们可以综合了解中国音乐的传统观念。这就是《乐记》( Annotations on Music ),它是儒家的经典论著《礼记》( Book of Rites )的一部分。《礼记》的成书相对晚些,大约是在公元初年。《乐记》由马融(字季长,79—166)编撰。然而,通过与更早的文献,比如东周一些有影响的哲学家作品中与音乐相关的段落相对比,发现《乐记》虽然成书较晚,但却包含了很多相对更早的理念。然而,《乐记》是按照儒家的标准写成,因此是士人音乐理想的权威代表。而且,直到近期,在中国文学中,《乐记》依然是中国音乐文献的标准,在其后的音乐及音乐理论著作中被广泛地引用,因此我想我们尽可以将它作为讨论中国音乐概述的基础 [1] 。
这部著作包含了大量信息,不仅有关于音乐含义的内容,更有关于仪式中乐队的情况,以及祭祀乐舞的内容。对于音乐意义的论述大都散落于文章之中,我将尽量把与此相关的、最重要的材料系统地整理出来,逐一讨论。
音乐的意义基本上包括两方面:依照视角的不同,一方面是它一般的、宇宙的和神性的方面;另一方面则是具体的、政治的和人性的方面。
从其一般的层面来说,音乐是整个自然界内在的和谐,可以包容天地。从其具体的层面来说,它可以应用于人,既包括个人,也包括政治统一体的成员,即“国”。
在《乐记》中,对音乐的这两个层面都有详尽的论述。但因为此书是出自于儒家,所以很自然地对音乐的后一个层面更加重视。
在整部著作中,音乐被认为是和“礼”分不开的,而“礼”、“乐”又是一个体面的政府所不可或缺的。《乐记》中不止一次地提到乐高于礼,主要是因为乐包含了天之和谐,而礼代表了地之和谐。“乐者,天地之和也,礼者,天地之序也,和故百物皆化,序故群物皆别,乐由天作,礼以地制。”(“Music is the harmony of heaven and earth, rites constitute the graduation of heaven and earth. Through harmony all things are brought forth, through graduation all things are properly classified. Music comes from heaven,rites are modelled after earthly designs.”) “乐者敦和率神而从天,礼者别宜居鬼而从地,故圣人作乐以应天,制礼以配地,礼乐明备,天地官矣。”(“Music aims at harmony, it belongs to the higher spiritual agencies, and it follows heaven. Rites aim at the distinction of differences, they belong to the lower spiritual agencies, and follow earth. Therefore the Holy Sages composed music in order that it might correspond to Heaven, and they instituted rites so that they might correspond to Earth. When rites and music are manifest and perfect, Heaven and Earth will be regulated.”)
音乐与人是紧密联系的,因为音乐可以和人性中的神性呼应。“人生而静,天之性也,感于物而动,性之欲也……好恶无节于内,知诱于外,不能反躬,天理灭矣。”(“When man is born he is serene: this is the nature of Heaven. Experiencing contact with outer things, he is moved, and in his nature desire is created...If man cannot regulate his likes and his dislikes, the outer things will lead him astray, he will grow incapable of introspection, and the Heavenly nature in him disappears.”) “是故先王之制礼乐,人为之节。”(“For this reason the Kings of olden times instituted rites and music in order to regulate human emotions.”) “乐者为同,礼者为异,同则相亲,异则相敬。”(“Music points to what all beings have in common; rites point to that in which all beings differ. What is common leads to mutual love, what is different leads to mutual respect.”) “乐由中出,礼自外作,乐由中出,故静,礼自外作,故文。”(“Music is based on the inner life of man, rites on outer appearances. Music comes from within, therefore it is serene; rites come from without, therefore they are elegant.”)
因为音乐是“天”的直接体现,明智的国君会利用音乐协助治理国家。“乐也者,圣人之所乐也,而可以善民心,其感人深,其移风易俗,故先王著其教焉。”(“In Music the Holy Sages took delight, because music can improve the heart of the people. Music has a profound influence on man, it can improve customs and ameliorate morals. Therefore the Kings of olden times promoted the teaching of music.”) “故乐行而伦清,耳目聪明,血气和平,移风易俗,天下皆宁。”(“Therefore, when music flourishes, human relations are clarified, eyes and ears are made more susceptive, body and mind are in balanced harmony, good customs prosper and morals are improved, and peace reigns everywhere under Heaven.”)
因此,音乐可以说是圣明君主把从上天感应到的美德,传给他的子民的工具。
“乐者,心之动也,声者,乐之象也,文采节奏,声之饰也,君子动其本,乐其象,然后治其饰。”(“Music is formed in the heart. Tones are the shape in which music is expressed. Elegance and rhythm are the decoration of the tones. The Superior Man takes the feelings in his heart as basis, he gives them shape in music, and then he gives this music its final form.”) 但在演奏音乐的时候,因为音乐具有这些深层的含义,重点不应放在表面的旋律之美,和音符的文饰上。在所有精神之中,音乐的最终含义必须表达清楚。“是故乐之隆非极音也。”(“The greatness of music lies not in perfection of tone.”) 因为(在礼乐中),“是故德成而上,艺成而下。”(“[In rites and music]Virtue is more than Art.”)
这一规则早已被古代的统治者发现:“是故先王之制礼乐也,非以极口腹耳目之欲也,将以教民平好恶而反人道之正也。”(“The kings of olden times instituted rites and music, not to satisfy the mouths and stomachs, the ears and eyes, but in order to teach the people to balance their likes and dislikes, and to bring them back to the Right Way.”)
在《乐记》中,除了讲述音乐在宇宙天道和治国方面的崇高作用,也有几段讲述音乐对个人的作用。“君子曰,礼乐不可斯须去身,致乐以治心,则易直子谅之心油然生矣。”(“A wise man has said: ‘Not for one single moment may one separate oneself from Rites and Music.’When one perfects oneself in music with the aim of regulating the heart, then as a matter of course the heart shall be calm, straight, tender and pure.”) “是故乐在宗庙之中,君臣上下同听之,则莫不和敬,在族长乡里之中,长幼同听之,则莫不和顺,在闺门之内,父子兄弟同听之,则莫不和亲。”(“Therefore, during a musical performance in the Temple of the Ancestors, prince and statesman, high and low listen together, and an atmosphere of harmony and respect prevails. During a musical performance on the occasion of clan festivals or village festivals, old and young listen together, and an atmosphere of harmony and compliance prevails. During a musical performance in the household, parents and children, elder and younger brothers listen together, and an atmosphere of harmony and affection prevails.”)
最后我引用一段话,描述了《春秋》对音乐的态度,儒家所认为的“理想的人”应是这样的:“是故君子反情,以和其志,比类以成其行,奸声乱色不留聪明,淫乐慝礼不接心术,惰慢邪辟之气不设于身体,使耳目鼻口心知百体,皆由顺正以行其义,然后发以声音,而文以琴瑟,动以干戚,饰以羽旄,从以箫管,奋至德之光,动四气之和,以著万物之理。”(“The Superior Man returns to his original heavenly nature, and thereto he conforms his thoughts. He distinguishes between good and bad, and in accordance therewith regulates his conduct. He does not perceive lewd sounds or indecent spectacles, he keeps his heart undefiled by lascivious music or unbecoming rites. His body is free from laziness and negligence, falsehood and depravity. He makes his ears and eyes, nose and mouth, all the functions of perception of his entire body conform to what is right, and so achieves righteous conduct. Then he expresses his sentiments in chant: he accompanies them on lute and sê, moves the shield and the axe, and uses as decoration the pheasant-feathers and the ox tails, and finally he lets the flutes sound. The splendour of complete virtue makes the four seasons revolve in harmony, and establishes the right order of all things.”)
排箫,用于仪式乐队中。选自《直省释奠礼乐记》(有1891年序)。
从以上的引文可以清楚地看到,按照传统的理念,只有一种音乐可以称其为“音乐”:即仪式中乐队演奏的音乐。这些乐队是神圣的组织,是由先王为治理国家、教化个人而建立,因此演奏的音乐和表演的舞蹈绝不是为了放松或是消遣。而对于独奏乐器,比如琴和瑟来说,它们演奏的音乐也仅仅是在仪式乐队中起作用时,才称其为音乐。
在政治清明的儒教国家中,专门用于娱乐的音乐是不存在的。只有当朝政腐化,国家将亡时,不符合这些高尚标准的音乐才会出现。但这些音乐往往不被称之为音乐,而被称为“靡靡之音”;这些音乐使人堕落,搅乱正常的男女关系、君臣关系,破坏立国的基础。它们与真正的“音乐”无关。
[1] 更古老的音乐文献,可以参考成书于公元前3世纪的、带有道教色彩的《吕氏春秋》( Annals of Spring and Autumn of Lü Pu-wei ),第五章中包括了四节与音乐相关的文字,这些文字特别重要,因为它引述了古代神话,说明了音乐在古代图腾仪式中的作用。此书已由卫礼贤(R. Wilhelm)译成德语( Frühling und Herbst des Lü Bu-we ,耶拿,1928年)。我还会推荐淮南子的一些著作,参见拉卢瓦(L. Laloy)的有关讨论,刊载于《通报》,1913年5月号,291—298页。(该刊创立于1890年,是国际上最早的汉学刊物——译者注。)