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Oil was in the depths of the planet for millions of years before man found a use for it in the internal combustion engine. Unfortunately, this combination of resource and technology is so entrenched in man’s way of life that it scarcely seems possible even to imagine a day when people may no longer be dependent on oil. One of the great fears is that Earth’s supply of oil is finite and the tank will one day run dry. In addition, oil and the pollutants it causes are choking the life from the planet. However, the day when people no longer depend totally on oil may be in sight thanks to the recent development of the hydrogen fuel cell and practical applications for it.
The concept of the hydrogen fuel cell is quite simple. It is similar to a battery except that it contains oxygen and hydrogen in separate chambers. The electrons of the oxygen and hydrogen are stripped away, leaving electricity and water as waste products. In fact, the space shuttle uses hydrogen fuel cells to produce all of its electricity and water supplies and has never had a problem. The quest for the hydrogen fuel cell began in the nineteenth century when Welshman Sir Robert Grove made the first documented one in history. Unfortunately, his subsequent hydrogen fuel cells never produced enough electricity to justify the expense of creating them. Not until the twentieth century was that problem solved. In 1959, the first vehicle, a tractor, was powered by a hydrogen fuel. Yet, the very few who knew about it viewed it as a novelty, so there was no great rush to produce more hydrogen vehicles.
Geoffrey Ballard, a Canadian engineer and environmentalist, is leading the charge to produce a hydrogen economy. His company, Ballard Power Systems, produced the first hydrogen cell- powered bus in 1993 and is at the cutting edge of hydrogen cell technology. It took Ballard a long time to reach this point since he had difficulty convincing his own managers and investors that he could make the bus. However, nothing breeds success like success, and, once the bus was rolling, Ballard received interest and investment from several major automobile firms. Daimler-Benz produced the first hydrogen cell car in 1997.
There are still many obstacles to overcome. One criticism of hydrogen-powered vehicles is that no one will buy them because there is no easy source of hydrogen to replenish the supply. Hydrogen, although it is the most abundant element in the universe, is not freely found on Earth, meaning it is part of other elements such as oxygen, methane, natural gas, and even petroleum. Water contains a great deal of hydrogen and seems the best and cleanest source of hydrogen. However, separating the hydrogen requires the use of, ironically, electricity itself. Clean, alternative means of making electricity such as with wind, water, and solar methods would justify the costs of separating the hydrogen. Ballard and his team have established another company called Hydrogen General to help develop the infrastructure of hydrogen separation and hydrogen supply points for future fleets of hydrogen-powered cars and buses. Several hydrogen stations have been established in Europe, and several countries are currently investing in future fleets of hydrogen-powered buses.
There has been some aid in this progress from various governments. A California passed a bill in the late 1990s requiring ten percent of cars sold in that state to have zero-emissions of pollutants. B With more than thirty million people, the largest population in the United States, this is a substantial number of cars. C This law gave a boost to the manufacturing of hydrogen fuel celled cars by the big automobile makers. D Despite these successes, it is still a long road ahead for the hydrogen economy. The world’s infrastructure is run on oil and oil products. Massive expenditures would be required to transform our system to a hydrogen-based one, and many Third World countries are unable to afford such a transformation. Finally, the oil companies themselves are resisting the move, with the specter of massive losses in revenue for decreasing oil sales staring them in the face. One day people may no longer need oil, but that day is long off indeed.
cutting edge: the most modern and advanced point in the development of something
31. The author mentions all of the following points about oil in paragraph 1 EXCEPT:
A People have an overly developed dependence on using it.
B People have replaced the use of oil with that of hydrogen.
C People may not be able to rely upon using oil forever.
D Oil is a major cause of the world’s environmental problems.
32. The author mentions in paragraph 2 that the space shuttle uses hydrogen fuel cells in order to
A show that hydrogen fuel cells are able to be used in space
B prove that the space shuttle has the world’s latest technology
C demonstrate that hydrogen fuel cells are reliable and safe
D explain how the space shuttle gets its electricity and water
33. According to paragraph 2, it took a long time to develop practical hydrogen fuel cells because
A they were not cost-efficient for people to construct
B there was no readily available source of hydrogen
C they produced too many waste products to dispose of
D no one was interested in either purchasing or using them
34. The word it in the passage refers to
A expense
B problem
C tractor
D hydrogen fuel
35. According to paragraph 3, it took Geoffrey Ballard a long time to produce the first hydrogen-powered bus because
A his invention was opposed by various automobile manufacturers
B he lacked the internal support and external investment for his idea
C he had no way to make cheap hydrogen from his available resources
D he was opposed by the oil companies who did not want to lose profits
36. It can be inferred from paragraph 3 that the big automobile companies have invested in Ballard’s company only because
A he has the most experience of anyone with hydrogen power
B they want to prevent his company from making hydrogen cars
C they know that some day the world’s oil supplies will run out
D he has produced a practical use for the hydrogen fuel cell
37. According to paragraph 4, Hydrogen General was created in order to
A develop the foundation that countries require for a hydrogen economy
B battle the people and companies opposed to the hydrogen economy
C convince people of the need to take part in the hydrogen economy
D find more sources of hydrogen that can be reproduced cheaply
38. The word replenish in the passage is closest in meaning to
A restock
B revitalize
C revive
D reinforce
39. Look at the four squares [■] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage.
Ironically, considering the law, the governor of California still drives around town in a gas-guzzling Humvee.
Where would the sentence best fit?
Click on a square [■] to add the sentence to the passage.
40. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas of the passage. Some sentences do not belong because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points .
Although a hydrogen economy is becoming more of a possibility, there are many obstacles to overcome before it will totally replace our petroleum-based infrastructure.
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A Oil companies, the main opponents of hydrogen power, will not easily give up the profits they glean from petroleum.
B People are reluctant to try the new hydrogen cars because they think the cars are not practical without a supporting infrastructure.
C Hydrogen must be separated from other sources in order to be used as a fuel source, and it is expensive to do so.
D It is predicted that some time in the future, our sources of oil will dry up, which will cause people to seek other forms of energy.
E Hydrogen is a clean alternative to oil, which is one of the main causes of pollution throughout the planet.
F The petroleum infrastructure of the world will be expensive to replace, and many countries cannot afford it at present.
Drag your answer choices to the spaces where they belong.
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