美国国务院在承担报告南越“反叛乱”问题的责任后,建议南越分阶段实施“反叛乱”,让南越优先考虑军事“反叛乱”,等进入安全阶段后,再使用准军事、民事“反叛乱”手段。 [73] 这显然与英国的“反叛乱”理念大为不同。但在1961年8月,东德开始修建柏林墙,美苏部队在柏林墙下对峙。这个状况导致美国肯定不能减弱北约的军事力量,美国注定不会分兵越南,故肯尼迪急需盟友的帮助。
恰好,英国派出了“反叛乱”专家团到越南。“9月17日,英国正式宣布派遣以罗伯特·汤普森为首的英国顾问团援助南越。” 汤普森代表团到南越后,经过实地考察,向南越当局提交了一份关于三角洲地区的“反叛乱”纲要。该纲要的主要内容是建议南越按照其他国家的“反叛乱”模式,在中央和地方设立有效的内部安全委员会 [74] 和实施战略村计划。由此可以看出,英国的“反叛乱”理念是坚持以民事手段为主,以争取民心。
美国对英国的“反叛乱”建议心存疑虑。1961年10月中旬,肯尼迪派遣其军事代表泰勒(Maxwell D.Taylor)率调查团到南越实地考察。彼时湄公河三角洲地区正在遭遇罕见的洪灾,南越当局和民众关系原本就比较紧张,洪灾又增加了南越当局的经济和行政负担。南越当局急于得到美国的援助,便以“反叛乱”为名,要求修复被洪水损坏的道路、桥梁。 [75]
1961年11月3日,泰勒向肯尼迪建议:为了帮助南越应对危机,应取消驻越军事援助顾问团的人数上限;以抗洪救灾的名义向南越派遣部队;成立一个由总统助理领导的特别小组,以专属的沟通渠道和财政权及时处理南越的紧急状况;让一个高级军官负责美国在南越的一切“反叛乱”事务。 [76] 总之,泰勒的建议可以归纳为美国应该与南越建立“有限伙伴”关系。
时任国防部长麦克纳马拉(Robert S.McNamara)以及参谋长联席会议都支持泰勒调查团的建议。“他们反对渐进主义的做法,建议派遣美国战斗部队部署在北纬17度线以南地区。”但最终肯尼迪经过权衡,“把美国的对越政策确定为‘有限伙伴’政策”。 相应的,美国在越南只是实施“特种战争”,即“反叛乱”战争,通过出钱、出武器装备的方式和用美国地面部队以外的军事力量及军事顾问干涉的手段参与战争。1961年11月22日,肯尼迪签署了《国家安全行动备忘录第114号》,以确保美国的援助有助于南越的“反叛乱”。 [77] 此后掀起了对越援助的高潮。
美国要大量援助南越,肯定要加强自己对南越的掌控及削弱英国在南越“反叛乱”事务中的作用。汤普森代表团没能协调美英在南越的“反叛乱”政策,他绕过美国直接向南越当局提出建议。而吴庭艳利用他规避了美国所要求的南越改革,这直接降低了美国在南越的作用。为了反击英、南越的上述行动,美国在南越成立了军事司令部,并在白宫成立了“反叛乱”特别小组。
1961年12月,国防部、中情局和国际开发署(AID)讨论南越的“反叛乱”活动,并提出了在南越成立军事司令部、设立美军司令的草案。军队的角色是协调与“反叛乱”紧密相关的援助活动。政治问题和基本政策仍然由驻越大使瑙尔汀(Frederick E.Nolting)负责。 [78] 驻越大使和美军司令的职责明确,目的是避免在越南的美国高级官员被离间。1962年2月,美国最终成立了驻越军援司令部。
1962年1月18日,肯尼迪批准了《国家安全行动备忘录第124号》,在白宫成立了“反叛乱”特别小组。 [79] 这是白宫成立的一个规格比较高的“反叛乱”机构,其目的是确保官僚机构仍然把重点放在新的“反叛乱”任务上,统一调动资源。特别小组由泰勒主持,包括国务卿腊斯克(Dean Rusk)、国防部长麦克纳马拉、国际开发署负责人福勒·汉密尔顿(Fowler Hamilton)、中情局局长约翰·麦科恩(John A.McCone)、司法部部长罗伯特·肯尼迪(Robert Kennedy)等成员。 [80]
吴庭艳不甘心权力被美国独揽,所以不赞同美国的“反叛乱”方式,不肯签署《三角洲计划》 。此时,汤普森已经向美国妥协,与美国军方协调他的“反叛乱”计划, [81] 听命于美国军方。肯尼迪政府决定优先支持扩大了的“反叛乱”计划。为此,肯尼迪接连签署《国家安全行动备忘录第131号》和《国家安全行动备忘录第132号》,全力支持“反叛乱”计划,支持南越警察部队。 [82] 在大量美援面前,1962年3月19日,在推迟了一个月后,吴庭艳最终签署了《三角洲计划》。 [83]
不过,到1962年6月底,“反叛乱”的资金问题仍然困扰着美国。南越一直要求美国提供现金援助。1962年7月1日,越南特遣部队 [84] 提交最后一次报告,决定支持南越的“反叛乱”,为其提供经济援助。驻越大使也建议国务院应该专门为南越的“反叛乱”设计一个援助计划。 [85] 1962年8月7日,肯尼迪发布《国家安全行动备忘录第177号》,大幅增加了对南越的非军事援助,还下令重组国际开发署。 [86]
虽然给了南越非军事援助,但是在1962年8月24日,肯尼迪又批准了“反叛乱”特别小组起草的《美国海外内部防务政策》。该文件详细说明了“反叛乱”的措施,即要同时在城市和乡村进行“反叛乱” [87] ,同时强调南越自己也要承担相应的“反叛乱”支出和责任。
最终,肯尼迪政府通过向南越的警察、准军事部队增加援助的方式扩大了在南越的“反叛乱”战争,制定了同时在城市和农村开展“反叛乱”的政策,纠正了艾森豪威尔时期只重视城市“反叛乱”的路线,同时强调了南越也要承担“反叛乱”责任。
[1] G.John Ikenberry,“America's Imperial Ambition”, Foreign Affairs ,Vol.81,No.5(Sep.-Oct.,2002),pp.45-46.
[2] Policy Planning Staff Paper on United States Policy Toward Southeast Asia,March 29,1949, Foreign Relations of the United States ,1949,Volume Ⅶ,Part 2,The Far East and Australasia,pp.1128-1133.
[3] Memorandum by the Executive Secretary of the National Security Council(Souers)to the National Security Council,December 30,1949, Foreign Relations of the United States ,1949,Volume Ⅶ,Part 2,The Far East and Australasia,pp.1215-1220.
[4] Report to the National Security Council by the Department of State,February 27,1950, Foreign Relations of the United States ,1950,Volume Ⅵ,East Asia and the Pacific,pp.744-747.
[5] Memorandum by Mr.Robert E.Hoey of the Office of Philippine and Southeast Asian Affairs to the Ambassador at Large(Jessup),December 27,1950, Foreign Relations of the United States ,1950,Volume Ⅵ,East Asia and the Pacific,pp.955-957.
[6] Intelligence Estimate Prepared by the Estimates Group,Office of Intelligence Research,Department of State,June 25,1950, Foreign Relations of the United States ,1950,Volume Ⅶ,Korea,pp.148-154.
[7] Statement Issued by the President,June 27,1950, Foreign Relations of the United States ,1950,Volume Ⅶ,Korea,pp.202-203.
[8] The Special Assistant to the Secretary of Defense for Foreign Military Affairs and Assistance(Burns)to the Deputy Undersecretary of State(Matthews),July 27,1950, Foreign Relations of the United States ,1950,Volume Ⅶ,Korea,p.481.
[9] Memorandum by the Secretary of State to the President,July 10,1950, Foreign Relations of the United States ,1950,Volume Ⅵ,East Asia and the Pacific,pp.115-116.
[10] Editorial Note, Foreign Relations of the United States ,1951,Volume Ⅶ,Part 1,Korea and China,p.337.
[11] Report to the National Security Council by the Executive Secretary(Lay),May 17,1951, Foreign Relations of the United States ,1951,Volume Ⅵ,Part 1,Asia and the Pacific,pp.33-63.
[12] Memorandum by the Assistant Secretary of State for Far Eastern Affairs(Butterworth)to the Deputy Under Secretary of State for Political Affairs(Rusk),January 5,1950, Foreign Relations of the United States ,1950,Volume Ⅵ,East Asia and the Pacific,p.690.
[13] Memorandum by the Assistant Secretary of State for Far Eastern Affairs(Rusk)to the Secretary of State,September 11,1950, Foreign Relations of the United States ,1950,Volume Ⅵ,East Asia and the Pacific,p.880.
[14] Minutes of the First Meeting with General de Lattre de Tassigny,at the Department of State,September 17,1951,10:30 a.m.,September 17,1951, Foreign Relations of the United States ,1951,Volume Ⅵ,Part 1,Asia and the Pacific,p.508.
[15] Record of a Meeting at the Pentagon Building,Washington,September 20,1951,3:30 p.m.,September 20,1951, Foreign Relations of the United States ,1951,Volume Ⅵ,Part 1,Asia and the Pacific,pp.520-521.
[16] The Acting Secretary of State to the Legation at Saigon,December 3,1951, Foreign Relations of the United States ,1951,Volume Ⅵ,Part 1,Asia and the Pacific,pp.551-552.
[17] Memorandum of Conversation,by Paul J.Sturm,March 21,1952, Foreign Relations of the United States ,1952-1954,Volume ⅩⅢ,Part 1,Indochina,p.75.
[18] Report to the National Security Council by the Executive Secretary(Lay),June 25,1952, Foreign Relations of the United States ,1952-1954,Volume Ⅻ,Part 1,East Asia and the Pacific,pp.127-134.
[19] The Pentagon Papers ,Volume one,The Senator Gravel Edition,Boston:Beacon Press,p.88.
[20] Report to the National Security Council by the Executive Secretary(Lay),January 16,1954, Foreign Relations of the United States ,1952-1954,Volume ⅩⅢ,Part 1,Indochina,pp.971-976.
[21] Memorandum of the Meeting of the President's Special Committee on Indochina,Washington,January 29,1954, Foreign Relations of the United States ,1952-1954,Volume ⅩⅢ,Part 1,Indochina,pp.1002-1006.
[22] Editorial Note, Foreign Relations of the United States ,1952-1954,Volume ⅩⅢ,Part 1,Indochina,p.1160.
[23] The Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff(Radford)to the Chief of Staff of the French Armed Forces(Ely),April 12,1954, Foreign Relations of the United States ,1952-1954,Volume ⅩⅢ,Part 1,Indochina,pp.1317-1318.
[24] Memorandum of Conversation,by the Assistant Secretary of State for European Affairs(Merchant),April 26,1954, Foreign Relations of the United States ,1952-1954,Volume ⅩⅢ,Part 1,Indochina,p.1387.
[25] Memorandum by the Adviser to the United States Delegation(Stelle)to the Special Adviser to the United States Delegation(Bowie),May 1,1954, Foreign Relations of the United States ,1952-1954,Volume ⅩⅥ,The Geneva Conference,pp.645-646.
[26] 五个条件包括:印支获得“真正的自由”;美国承担培训当地军队的主要责任;美国负责制订军事计划;法国军队继续留在印支,且不得要求美军替代法军;争取英国、澳大利亚、泰国、菲律宾等国参与。详见 The Pentagon Papers ,Volume one,The Senator Gravel Edition,Boston:Beacon Press,p.503.
[27] The United States Delegation to the Department of State,May 8,1954, Foreign Relations of the United States ,1952-1954,Volume ⅩⅥ,The Geneva Conference,pp.730-731.
[28] The Secretary of State to the United States Delegation,May 8,1954, Foreign Relations of the United States ,1952-1954,Volume ⅩⅥ,The Geneva Conference,p.731.
[29] The Secretary of State to the Embassy in the United Kingdom,July 7,1954, Foreign Relations of the United States ,1952-1954,Volume ⅩⅥ,The Geneva Conference,p.1294.七点协议的主要内容是印度支那不能让共产党接管。详见The Secretary of State to the Embassy in France,June 28,1954, Foreign Relations of the United States ,1952-1954,Volume ⅩⅥ,The Geneva Conference,pp.1256-1257.
[30] The Secretary of State to the United States Delegation,June 24,1954, Foreign Relations of the United States ,1952-1954,Volume ⅩⅥ,The Geneva Conference,p.1238.
[31] The Final Declaration on Indochina,July 21,1954, Foreign Relations of the United States ,1952-1954,Volume ⅩⅥ,The Geneva Conference,pp.1540-1542.
[32] Statement by the Under Secretary of State(Smith),July 23,1954, Foreign Relations of the United States ,1952-1954,Volume ⅩⅥ,The Geneva Conference,p.1551.
[33] Editorial Note, Foreign Relations of the United States ,1952-1954,Volume ⅩⅥ,The Geneva Conference,p.1503.
[34] The Ambassador at Saigon(Heath)to the Department of State,July 16,1954, Foreign Relations of the United States ,1952-1954,Volume ⅩⅢ,Part 2,Indochina,p.1842.
[35] The Ambassador in France(Dillon)to the Department of State,May 26,1954, Foreign Relations of the United States ,1952-1954,Volume ⅩⅢ,Part 2,Indochina,p.1615.
[36] Memorandum by the Director of the Policy Planning Staff(Bowie)to the Secretary of State,June 25,1954, Foreign Relations of the United States ,1952-1954,Volume ⅩⅢ,Part 2,Indochina,pp.1748-1751.
[37] The Charge in Vietnam(Kidder)to the Department of State,November 16,1954, Foreign Relations of the United States ,1952-1954,Volume ⅩⅢ,Part 2,Indochina,p.2256.
[38] Memorandum of Conversation,by the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff(Radford),December 18,1954, Foreign Relations of the United States ,1952-1954,Volume ⅩⅢ,Part 2,Indochina,p.2399.
[39] Memorandum by the CIA Member of the Special OCB Working Group on Indochina(Bissell),December 20,1954, Foreign Relations of the United States ,1952-1954,Volume ⅩⅢ,Part 2,Indochina,p.2408.
[40] Editorial Note, Foreign Relations of the United States ,1955-1957,Volume Ⅰ,Vietnam,p.415.
[41] Telegram from the Secretary of State to the Embassy in Vietnam,May 27,1955, Foreign Relations of the United States ,1955-1957,Volume Ⅰ,Vietnam,p.423.
[42] Memorandum from the Deputy Assistant Secretary of State for Far Eastern Affairs(Sebald)to the Secretary of State,June 8,1955, Foreign Relations of the United States ,1955-1957,Volume Ⅰ,Vietnam,pp.436-438.
[43] Memorandum from the Deputy Assistant Secretary of State for Far Eastern Affairs(Sebald)to the Secretary of State,June 14,1955, Foreign Relations of the United States ,1955-1957,Volume Ⅰ,Vietnam,pp.449-455.
[44] Draft Telegram from the Secretary of State to the Embassy in Vietnam,July 6,1955, Foreign Relations of the United States ,1955-1957,Volume Ⅰ,Vietnam,pp.480-481.
[45] Telegram from the Acting Secretary of State to the Embassy in Vietnam,July 15,1955, Foreign Relations of the United States ,1955-1957,Volume Ⅰ,Vietnam,pp.487-488.
[46] Telegram from the Ambassador in Vietnam(Reinhardt)to the Department of State,July 16,1955, Foreign Relations of the United States ,1955-1957,Volume Ⅰ,Vietnam,pp.489-490.
[47] Telegram from the Chief of the Military Assistance Advisory Group in Indochina(O'Daniel)to the Commander in Chief,Pacific(Stump),August 9,1955, Foreign Relations of the United States ,1955-1957,Volume Ⅰ,Vietnam,pp.506-510.
[48] Memorandum from the Executive Secretary(Lay)to the National Security Council Planning Board,August 16,1955, Foreign Relations of the United States ,1955-1957,Volume Ⅰ,Vietnam,pp.515-516.
[49] Memorandum of a Conversation,Saigon,August 18,1955, Foreign Relations of the United States ,1955-1957,Volume Ⅰ,Vietnam,p.519.
[50] Memorandum from the Director of the Office of Philippine and Southeast Asian Affairs(Young)to the Assistant Secretary of State for Far Eastern Affairs(Robertson),October 5,1955, Foreign Relations of the United States ,1955-1957,Volume Ⅰ,Vietnam,pp.550-551.
[51] Telegram from the Ambassador in Vietnam(Reinhardt)to the Department of State,October 25,1955, Foreign Relations of the United States ,1955-1957,Volume Ⅰ,Vietnam,pp.565-566.
[52] Editorial Note, Foreign Relations of the United States ,1955-1957,Volume Ⅰ,Vietnam,pp.624-625.
[53] Dale Andradé, Ashes to Ashes:The Phoenix Program and the Vietnam War, Lexington and Toronto:Lexington Books,1990,p.34.
[54] 在威廉·罗西瑙(William Rosenau)的《美国对南越的内部安全援助:叛乱、颠覆和公共秩序》( US Internal Security Assistance to South Vietnam:Insurgency,Subversion and Public Order )一书中,具体介绍了这5种组织:刑警是一支3000人的部队,主要职责是犯罪侦查和反破坏、反假冒和反走私。在美国官员眼中,这个组织类似于美国联邦调查局(FBI),具有执法和反颠覆的功能。市政警察主要执行日常公共安全任务,如巡逻、交通管制及守卫公共建筑物。西贡的部队规模是全国最大的,总计超过5000人。此时,国民警卫队有44000人,负责巡逻、守护桥梁,以及保护沿通信干线的哨所。吴庭艳通过1955年4月的法令,合并各省地方和私人势力(美国使馆称之为“杂牌军”),成立国民警卫队。民兵,南越农村地区的安全自救组织。宪兵是由753人组成的相对训练有素的部队。与法国殖民时期不同,宪兵不是一个普通的内部安全部队,而是一个专门的警察组织,军民两用,职责是出具交通事故报告和调查军事人员。见书中第39—40页。
[55] William Rosenau, US Internal Security Assistance to South Vietnam:Insurgency,Subversion and Public Order, New York:Routledge,2005,p.57.
[56] Memorandum for the Record,by Colonel James I.Muir of the Military Assistance Advisory Group in Vietnam,November 5,1957, Foreign Relations of the United States ,1955-1957,Volume Ⅰ,Vietnam,pp.856-861.
[57] William Rosenau, US Internal Security Assistance to South Vietnam:Insurgency,Subversion and Public Order, New York:Routledge,2005,pp.70-75.
[58] William Rosenau, US Internal Security Assistance to South Vietnam:Insurgency,Subversion and Public Order, New York:Routledge,2005,pp.62-69.
[59] Outline Plan Prepared by the Military Assistance Advisory Group in Vietnam,October 27,1960, Foreign Relations of the United States ,1958-1960,Volume Ⅰ,Vietnam,p.616.
[60] Paper Prepared by the Military Assistance Advisory Group in Vietnam, Foreign Relations of the United States ,1958-1960,Volume Ⅰ,Vietnam,pp.550-556.
[61] Outline Plan Prepared by the Military Assistance Advisory Group in Vietnam,October 27,1960, Foreign Relations of the United States ,1958-1960,Volume Ⅰ,Vietnam,pp.613-620.
[62] William Rosenau, US Internal Security Assistance to South Vietnam:Insurgency,Subversion and Public Order, New York:Routledge,2005,pp.70-75.
[63] Paper Prepared by the Country Team Staff Committee,January 4,1961, Foreign Relations of the United States ,Vietnam,1961-1963,Volume Ⅰ,pp.1-12.
[64] William Rosenau, US Internal Security Assistance to South Vietnam:Insurgency,Subversion and Public Order, New York:Routledge,2005,p.74.
[65] Telegram from the Embassy in Vietnam to the Department of State,February 28,1961, Foreign Relations of the United States ,Vietnam,1961-1963,Volume Ⅰ,pp.37-40.
[66] Telegram from the Department of State to the Embassy in Vietnam,March 1,1961, Foreign Relations of the United States, Vietnam,1961-1963,Volume Ⅰ,pp.40-42.
[67] Memorandum from the President's Deputy Special Assistant for National Security Affairs(Rostow)to the President,April 15,1961, Foreign Relations of the United States ,Vietnam,1961-1963,Volume Ⅰ,pp.72-73.
[68] Draft Notes on the First Meeting of the Presidential Task Force on Vietnam,the Pentagon,April 24,1961, Foreign Relations of the United States ,Vietnam,1961-1963,Volume Ⅰ,pp.77-80.
[69] Gareth Porter,Gloria Emerson, Vietnam,A History in Documents ,New York:New American Library,Inc.,1981,pp.208-209.
[70] Memorandum from the Deputy Secretary of Defense(Gilpatric)to the President,May 3,1961, Foreign Relations of the United States ,Vietnam,1961-1963,Volume Ⅰ,p.92.
[71] Draft Memorandum of the Conversation of the Second Meeting of the Presidential Task Force on Vietnam,the Pentagon,May 4,1961, Foreign Relations of the United States ,Vietnam,1961-1963,Volume Ⅰ,pp.115-123.
[72] National Security Action Memorandum No.52,May 11,1961, Foreign Relations of the United States ,Vietnam,1961-1963,Volume Ⅰ,pp.132-134.
[73] Telegram from the Embassy in Vietnam to the Department of State,August 14,1961, Foreign Relations of the United States ,Vietnam,1961-1963,Volume Ⅰ,pp.274-279.
[74] Briefing Paper Prepared by the Embassy in Vietnam,October 17,1961, Foreign Relations of the United States ,Vietnam,1961-1963,Volume Ⅰ,pp.386-388.
[75] Telegram from the Chief of the Military Assistance Advisory Group in Vietnam(McGarr)to the Commander in Chief.Pacific(Felt),October 23,1961, Foreign Relations of the United States ,Vietnam,1961-1963,Volume Ⅰ,pp.424-425.
[76] Letter from the President's Military Representative(Taylor)to the President,November 3,1961, Foreign Relations of the United States ,Vietnam,1961-1963,Volume Ⅰ,pp.477-532.
[77] William Rosenau, US Internal Security Assistance to South Vietnam:Insurgency,Subversion and Public Order, New York:Routledge,2005,p.92.
[78] Letter from the Secretary of Defense(McNamara)to the Secretary of State,December 7,1961, Foreign Relations of the United States ,Vietnam,1961-1963,Volume Ⅰ,pp.720-723.
[79] National Security Action Memorandum No.124,January 18,1962, Foreign Relations of the United States ,Vietnam,1961-1963,Volume Ⅱ,pp.48-50.
[80] William Rosenau, US Internal Security Assistance to South Vietnam:Insurgency,Subversion and Public Order, New York:Routledge,2005,pp.89-90.
[81] Paper Prepared for the Special Group(Counterinsurgency),March 7,1962, Foreign Relations of the United States ,Vietnam,1961-1963,Volume Ⅱ,pp.200-206.
[82] Editorial Note, Foreign Relations of the United States ,Vietnam,1961-1963,Volume Ⅱ,p.156.
[83] Memorandum from Michael V.Forrestal of the National Security Council Staff to the President,June 20,1962, Foreign Relations of the United States ,Vietnam,1961-1963,Volume Ⅱ,pp.463-466.
[84] 越南特遣部队解散后,其后续工作由新成立的东南亚特别工作组下属的越南工作组继续执行。详见Final Report of the Vietnam Task Force,July 1,1962, Foreign Relations of the United States ,Vietnam,1961-1963,Volume Ⅱ,pp.484-497.
[85] Telegram from the Embassy in Vietnam to the Department of State,August 3,1962, Foreign Relations of the United States ,Vietnam,1961-1963,Volume Ⅱ,pp.576-579.
[86] William Rosenau, US Internal Security Assistance to South Vietnam:Insurgency,Subversion and Public Order, New York:Routledge,2005,pp.93-94.
[87] United States Overseas Internal Defense Policy ,September 1962,pp.4-29.