下载掌阅APP，畅读海量书库
立即打开
Learning community is the last concept you need to grasp in this chapter．It plays a key role in teachers’education in recent years．Nowadays，it has been widely used to improve，not only in－service but also pre－service teachers’teaching ability．We hope the materials and cases we offered will make you understand more about it．
The following part provides you the definition，the understanding，and the examples about the concept of“learning community”．Enjoy your learning．
“Learning community”is a general term we often called．In many situations，we also call it“Professional learning community”（PLC）．
（1）Definition
A group of people share and critically interrogate their practice in an ongoing，reflective，collaborative，inclusive，learning－oriented，growth－promoting way（Mitchell＆Sackney，2000；Toole＆Louis，2002）；operate as a collective enterprise（King＆ Newmann，2001）．Summarising the literature，Hord （1997：1）blended process and anticipated outcomes in defining a “professional community of learners”（Astuto，et al．，1993）as one：
．．．in which the teachers in a school and its administrators continuously seek and share learning，and act on their learning．The goal of their actions is to enhance their effectiveness as professionals for the students’benefit；thus，this arrangement may also be termed communities of continuous inquiry and improvement．
The notion，therefore，draws attention to the potential that a range of people based inside and outside a school can mutually enhance each other’s and pupils’learning as well as school development．
（2）Five key characteristics or features：
· Shared values and vision
· Collective responsibility
· Reflective professional inquiry
· Collaboration
· Group，as well as individual，learning is promoted
“共同体”一词首先是一个社会学概念，由德国社会学家和哲学家斐迪南· 滕尼斯于1887年最早提出，而学界对“学习共同体”（learning community）的概念有诸多描述，但基本公认是杜威最早将此理念引入教育学领域，由美国教育家博耶尔（1995：56）正式提出并使用。我国学者钟启泉（1998：13－16）教授将“学习共同体”的概念引入国内，其内涵主要包括：（1）共同体的构建；（2）共同体的愿景；（3）共同体的具体目标；（4）达到目标所采用的方式；（5）评价与反思。近年来我国对学习共同体的研究主要集中在网络学习共同体、学习型社区、终身学习、教师学习共同体、教师专业发展共同体、虚拟学习共同体等方面。在建立课程学习共同体时，根据具体的课程可将学习共同体具体细化为：由教师与学生组成的，为达到提高英语语言输出能力以及具有合作、执行、创新、应变等品质的综合素质和发展潜力为愿景的，以行知为取向的，以互动、启发、探究、合作等为方法策略的，以个人进步成长为结果进行反思及相应评估的生态学习系统。
“学习共同体”是建构主义教学论中的一种教学隐喻，直接与建构主义中“学习是知识的社会协商”这一学习隐喻相对应。它强调知识的社会性特征，是一群有着共同关注点或者对共同话题感兴趣的人们组织起来的一个以知识建构与意义协商为内涵的学习团体，其实质是为“有相同或相近的价值取向和偏好的人提供一种特殊的学习环境”。
1．What are professional learning communities？
There is no universal definition of a professional learning community．PLC may have shades of interpretation in different contexts，but there appears to be broad international consensus that it suggests a group of people sharing and critically interrogating their practice in an ongoing，reflective，collaborative，inclusive，learning－oriented，growth－promoting way （Mitchell＆ Sackney，2000；Toole＆ Louis，2002）；operating as a collective enterprise （King ＆ Newmann，2001）．Summarising the literature，Hord（1997：1）blended process and anticipated outcomes in defining a “professional community of learners”（Astuto，Clark，Read，McGree，＆Fernandez，1993）as one：
．．．in which the teachers in a school and its administrators continuously seek and share learning，and act on their learning．The goal of their actions is to enhance their effectiveness as professionals for the students’benefit；thus，this arrangement may also be termed communities of continuous inquiry and improvement．
The notion，therefore，draws attention to the potential that a range of people based inside and outside a school can mutually enhance each other’s and pupils’learning as well as school development．
2．Five key characteristics or features of PLC
· Shared values and vision．Having a shared vision and sense of purpose has been found to be centrally important（Andrews＆Lewis，2007）．In particular，there is “an undeviating focus”on all students’learning（Hord，2004）because individual autonomy is seen as potentially reducing teacher efficacy when teachers cannot count on colleagues to reinforce objectives （Louis et al．，1995；Newmann ＆ Wehlage，1995）．Louis and colleagues（1995）suggest that a shared value base provides a framework for “shared，collective，ethical decision making”．
· Collective responsibility．There is broad agreement in the literature that members of a PLC consistently take collective responsibility for student learning （King ＆Newmann，2001；Kruse，Louis＆Bryk，1995；Leithwood＆Louis，1998）．It is assumed that such collective responsibility helps to sustain commitment，puts peer pressure and accountability on those who do not do their fair share，and eases isolation （Newmann＆Wehlage，1995）．
· Reflective professional inquiry．This includes：“reflective dialogue”（Louis et al．，1995），conversations about serious educational issues or problems involving the application of new knowledge in a sustained manner；“deprivatization of practice”（Louis et al．，1995），frequent examining of teachers’practice，through mutual observation and case analysis，joint planning and curriculum development （Newmann＆ Wehlage，1995）；seeking new knowledge（Hord，2004）；tacit knowledge constantly converted into shared knowledge through interaction（Fullan，2001）；and applying new ideas and information to problem－solving and solutions addressing pupils’needs（Hord，1997）．
· Collaboration．This concerns staff involvement in developmental activities with consequences for several people，going beyond superficial exchanges of help，support，or assistance（Louis et al．，1995），for example，joint review and feedback （Hord，2004）．The link between collaborative activity and achievement of shared purpose is highlighted（Newmann ＆ Wehlage，1995）．Feelings of interdependence are central to such collaboration：a goal of better teaching practices would be considered unachievable without collaboration，linking collaborative activity and achievement of shared purpose．This does not deny the existence of micropolitics，but conflicts are managed more effectively in some PLCs，as Hargreaves（2003：163）notes：
Professional learning communities demand that teachers develop grown－up norms in a grown－up profession—where difference，debate and disagreement are viewed as the foundation stones of improvement．
· Group，as well as individual，learning is promoted．All teachers are learners with their colleagues （Louis et al．，1995）．In Rosenholtz’s （1989）“learning enriched schools”，“professional self renewal”is “a communal rather than solitary happening”．Collective learning is also evident，through collective knowledge creation（Louis，1994），whereby the school learning community interacts，engages in serious dialogue and deliberates about information and data，interpreting it communally and distributing it among them．
Our own research broadly confirms these five characteristics，also identifying three others：mutual trust，respect and support among staff members；inclusive membership—the community extending beyond teachers and school leaders to support staff，and it being a school－wide community rather than consisting of smaller groups of staff；and openness，networks and partnerships—looking beyond the school for sources of learning and ideas（Bolam et al．，2005；Stoll et al．，2006）．
（Adapted from Stoll et al．，2006）
How are we going to put the concept of learning community into practice？The following cases make us understand more about it．Besides，we need to try to learn the methods they used in the cases to enhance our teaching and learning．
Big Idea＃1：Ensuring that students learn
School mission statements that promise“learning for all”have become a cliché．But when a school staff takes that statement literally—when teachers view it as a pledge to ensure the success of each student rather than as politically correct hyperbole—profound changes begin to take place． The school staff finds itself asking：What school characteristics and practices have been most successful in helping all students achieve at high levels？How could we adopt those characteristics and practices in our own school？What commitments would we have to make to one another to create such a school？What indicators could we monitor to assess our progress？When the staff has built shared knowledge and found common ground on these questions，the school has a solid foundation for moving forward with its improvement initiative．
As the school moves forward，every professional in the building must engage with colleagues in the ongoing exploration of three crucial questions that drive the work of those within a traditional learning community：
—What do we want each student to learn？
—How will we know when each student has learned it？
—How will we respond when a student experiences difficulty in learning？
The answer to the third question separates learning communities from traditional schools．
Here is a scenario that plays out daily in traditional schools．A teacher teaches a unit to the best of his or her ability，but at the conclusion of the unit some students have not mastered the essential outcomes．On the one hand，the teacher would like to take the time to help those students．On the other hand，the teacher feels compelled to move forward to“cover”the course content．If the teacher uses instructional time to assist students who have not learned，the progress of students who have mastered the content will suffer；if the teacher pushes on with new concepts，the struggling students will fall farther behind．
What typically happens in this situation？Almost invariably，the school leaves the solution to the discretion of individual teachers，who vary widely in the ways they respond．Some teachers conclude that the struggling students should transfer to a less rigorous course or should be considered for special education．Some lower their expectations by adopting less challenging standards for subgroups of students within their classrooms．Some look for ways to assist the students before and after school．Some allow struggling students to fail．
When a school begins to function as a professional learning community，however，teachers become aware of the incongruity between their commitment to ensure learning for all students and their lack of a coordinated strategy to respond when some students do not learn．The staff addresses this discrepancy by designing strategies to ensure that struggling students receive additional time and support，no matter who their teacher is．In addition to being systematic and schoolwide，the professional learning community’s response to students who experience difficulty is：
— Timely ．The school quickly identifies students who need additional time and support．
— Basedonintervention rather than remediation ．The plan provides students with help as soon as they experience difficulty rather than relying on summer school，retention，and remedial courses．
— Directive ．Instead of inviting students to seek additional help，the systematic plan requires students to devote extra time and receive additional assistance until they have mastered the necessary concepts．
The systematic，timely，and directive intervention program operating at Adlai Stevenson High School in Lincolnshire，Illinois，provides an excellent example．Every three weeks，every student receives a progress report．Within the first month of school，new students discover that if they are not doing well in a class，they will receive a wide array of immediate interventions．First，the teacher，counselor，and faculty advisor each talk with the student individually to help resolve the problem．The school also notifies the student’s parents about the concern．In addition，the school offers the struggling student a pass from study hall to a school tutoring center to get additional help in the course．An older student mentor，in conjunction with the struggling student’s advisor，helps the student with homework during the student’s daily advisory period．
Any student who continues to fall short of expectations at the end of six weeks despite these interventions is required，rather than invited，to attend tutoring sessions during the study hall period．Counselors begin to make weekly checks on the struggling student’s progress．If tutoring fails to bring about improvement within the next six weeks，the student is assigned to a daily guided study hall with 10 or fewer students．The guided study hall supervisor communicates with classroom teachers to learn exactly what homework each student needs to complete and monitors the completion of that homework．Parents attend a meeting at the school at which the student，parents，counselor，and classroom teacher must sign a contract clarifying what each party will do to help the student meet the standards for the course．
Stevenson High School serves more than 4000 students．Yet this school has found a way to monitor each student’s learning on a timely basis and to ensure that every student who experiences academic difficulty will receive extra time and support for learning．
Big Idea＃2：A focus on results
Professional learning communities judge their effectiveness on the basis of results．Working together to improve student achievement becomes the routine work of everyone in the school．Every teacher team participates in an ongoing process of identifying the current level of student achievement，establishing a goal to improve the current level，working together to achieve that goal，and providing periodic evidence of progress．Such goals as“We will adopt the Junior Great Books program”or“We will create three new labs for our science course”give way to“We will increase the percentage of students who meet the state standard in language arts from 83 percent to 90 percent”or“We will reduce the failure rate in our course by 50 percent．”
Schools and teachers typically suffer from the DRIP sydrome—Data Rich／Information Poor． The results－oriented professional learning community not only welcomes data but also turns data into useful and relevant information for staff．Teachers have never suffered from a lack of data．Even a teacher who works in isolation can easily establish the mean，mode，median，standard deviation，and percentage of students who demonstrated proficiency every time he or she administers a test．However，data will become a catalyst for an improved teacher practices only if the teacher has a basis of comparison．
When teacher teams develop common formative assessments throughout the school year，each teacher can identify how his or her students performed on each skill compared with other students．Individual teachers can call on their team colleagues to help them reflect on areas of concern．Each teacher has access to the ideas，materials，strategies，and talents of the entire team．
Freeport Intermediate School，located 50 miles south of Houston，Texas，attributes its success to an unrelenting focus on results．Teachers work in collaborative teams for 90 minutes daily to clarify the essential outcomes of their grade levels and courses and to align those outcomes with state standards．They develop consistent instructional calendars and administer the same brief assessment to all students at the same grade level at the conclusion of each instructional unit，roughly once a week．
Each quarter，the teams administer a common cumulative exam．Each spring，the teams develop and administer practice tests for the state exam．Each year，the teams pore over the results of the state test，which are broken down to show every teacher how his or her students performed on every skill and on every test item．The teachers share their results from all of these assessments with their colleagues，and they quickly learn when a teammate has been particularly effective in teaching a certain skill．Team members consciously look for successful practice and attempt to replicate it in their own practice；they also identify areas of the curriculum that need more attention．
Freeport Intermediate has been transformed from one of the lowest－performing schools in the state to a national model for academic achievement．Principal Clara Sale－Davis believes that the crucial first step in that transformation came when the staff began to honestly confront data on student achievement and to work together to improve results rather than make excuses for them．
Of course，this focus on continual improvement and results requires educators to change traditional practices and revise prevalent assumptions．Educators must begin to embrace data as a useful indicator of progress．They must stop disregarding or excusing unfavorable data and honestly confront the sometimes－brutal facts．They must stop using averages to analyze student performance and begin to focus on the success of each student．
Educators who focus on results must also stop limiting improvement goals to factors outside the classroom，such as student discipline and staff morale，and shift their attention to goals that focus on student learning．They must stop assessing their own effectiveness on the basis of how busy they are or how many new initiatives they have launched and begin instead to ask，“Have we made progress on the goals that are most important to us？”Educators must stop working in isolation and hoarding their ideas， materials，and strategies and begin to work together to meet the needs of all students．
思考问题
1．The case is from the local schools in the U．S．After reading the case，could you please share some key points with your classmates to show your understanding of PLC？
2．The case described the problems in Adlai Stevenson High School and the strategies the teachers adopted from PLC．What enlightenments have you learned？Please illustrate from the PLC’s point of view．
3．The second part of“Big Idea”is about focusing on students’learning result．What kind of method did the teacher teams develop？How did they achieve the result？
我国的中小学教研组制度设立于新中国成立之初，作为学校基本教学研究组织，与学校发展同步，颇具中国特色。在70多年的教育教学历程中为学校教学活动的正常运转、提升教育教学质量、教师发展以及教学改革做出了重要贡献，现阶段仍然发挥着她的作用。
我国中小学教研组制度存在以下实践优势：（1）形成了比较完善的教师集体备课制度；（2）有助于新任教师尽快提升教育教学能力；（3）教研组活动成为教师专业发展的重要途径（单志艳，2014）。然而，随着社会的发展，教研组制度也面临挑战，比如在其组织结构设置上容易导致一言堂的现象，教研组负责人、高年资教师容易形成领导角色掌控整个教研活动；在集体讨论和备课过程中容易形成教师被动参与；重视教学而不重视科研等问题。这似乎与学习共同体的设计理念相悖，同时也不利于教师的创新理念的形成与教师职业的进一步发展。如何更好地发挥教研组的作用，使其承担起教师共同体的重担，惠及教师、学生、家长甚至所在社区，共同促进所在区域基础教育的发展，是值得考虑的问题。
有学者研究指出，首先，要建立平等、互助、合作的教师文化，实现教师自主合作，互相促进，平等对话的氛围，使教研活动真正凸显包容、互助的主题；其次，教研组活动可以是教师个性化的体现，根据各自所教授的不同学科、教学经验等制定共同体的目标，分享各自的教学成果，促进教学及研究的发展；最后，组织运作机制是另外需要考虑的问题，应该多反思现有教研组运行的弊端，改进组织管理形式，使其更加适应新时期教育教学改革的发展。
思考问题
1．该案例列举了我国教研组制度的实践优势，你认为这是不是一种有中国特色的学习共同体？请列举教研组制度的一些特征并进行分析。
2．从学习共同体的概念出发，你认为我国现有的中小学教研组制度有哪些不足之处？如何改进使之成为有中国特色的教师专业学习共同体？
亮闪闪： 学习过程中，哪些是自己记忆深刻、受益最大、最欣赏的内容呢？请写出具体内容。
考考你： 请把自己弄懂的但觉得别人可能存在困惑的地方，用问题的形式表述出来，来挑战一下其他同学。
帮帮我： 请把自己不懂、不会的地方或想要了解的内容，用问题的形式表述出来，并带到课堂上加以讨论。
［1］DuFour，R．What is a“Professional Learning Community”？［J］． Educational Leadership ，2004 （05）：6－11．
［2］Stoll，L．，Bolam，R．，McMahon，A．，Wallace，M．，＆ Thomas，S．Professional learning communities：A review of the literature［J］． Journal of Educational Change ，2006（07），4：221－258．
［3］曹明．基于课堂学习共同体的“综合英语”课程个案研究［J］．大学英语教学与研究，2019，4：33－38．
［4］单志艳．走向中国特色教师专业学习共同体的教研组变革［J］．教研研究，2014（10）：86－90．