Part Ⅰ

Organization HR management

The character of organization lies in its culture.

Organizational culture represents the collective values,beliefs and principles of organizational members and is a product of such factors as history,product,market,technology,and strategy,type of employees,management style,and national culture.Organizational culture is a set of shared assumptions that guide what happens in organizations by defining appropriate behavior for various situations.It is also the pattern of such collective behaviors and assumptions that are taught to new organizational members as a way of perceiving and,even,thinking and feeling.Thus,organizational culture affects the way people and groups interact with each other,with clients,and with stakeholders.In addition,organizational culture may affect how much employees identify with an organization.

Organizational culture has been shown to have an impact on important organizational outcomes such as performance,attraction,recruitment,retention,employee satisfaction,and employee well-being.Also,organizations with an adaptive culture tend to perform better than organizations with an maladaptive culture.

Leadership

Leadership can be defined as a process of influencing others to agree on a shared purpose,and to work towards shared objectives.A distinction should be made between leadership and management.Managers process administrative tasks and organize work environments.Although leaders may be required to undertake managerial duties as well,leaders typically focus on inspiring followers and creating a shared organizational culture and values.Managers deal with complexity,while leaders deal with initiating and adapting to change.Managers undertake the tasks of planning,budgeting,organizing,staffing,controlling and problem solving.In contrast,leaders undertake the tasks of setting a direction or vision,aligning people to shared goals,communicating,and motivating.

Team effectiveness

Organizations support the use of teams,because teams can accomplish a much greater amount of work in a short period of time than can be accomplished by an individual contributor, and because the collective results of a group of contributors can produce higher quality deliverables.Five elements that are contributors to team effectiveness include:

1.Team composition

The composition of teams is initially decided during the selection of individual contributors that are to be assigned to specific teams and has a direct bearing on the resulting effectiveness of those teams.Aspects of team composition that should be considered during the team selection process include team member:knowledge,skills and abilities(KSAs),personalities,and attitudes.

2.Task design

A fundamental question in team task design is whether or not a task is even appropriate for a team.Those tasks that require predominantly independent work are best left to individuals,and team tasks should include those tasks that consist primarily of interdependent work.When a given task is appropriate for a team,task design can play a key role in team effectiveness.

3.Organizational resources

Organizational support systems impact the effectiveness of teams and provide resources for teams operating in the multi-team environment.In this case,the provided resources include various resource types that teams require to be effective,including facilities,equipment,information,training and leadership.Also identified during team chartering are team-specific resources(e.g.,budgetary resources,human resources).

4.Team rewards

Organizational reward systems are a driver for strengthening and enhancing individual team member efforts that contribute towards reaching collective team goals.In other words,rewards that are given to individual team members should be contingent upon the performance of the entire team.

Several design elements of organizational reward systems are needed to meet this objective.The first element for reward systems design is the concept that for a collective assessment to be appropriate for individual team members,the group‘s tasks must be highly interdependent.If this is not the case,individual assessment is more appropriate than team assessment.A second design element is the compatibility between individual-level reward systems and teamlevel reward systems.For example,it would be an unfair situation to reward the entire team for a job well done if only one team member did the great majority of the work.That team member would most likely view teams and team work in a negative fashion and not want to participate in a team setting in the future.A final design element is the creation of an organizational culture that supports and rewards employees who believe in the value of teamwork and who maintain a positive mental attitude towards team-based rewards.

5.Team goals

Goals for individual contributors have been shown to be motivating when they contain three elements:(1)difficulty,(2)acceptance,and(3)specificity.In the team setting,goal difficulty is related to group belief that the team can accomplish the tasks required to meet the assigned goal.This belief(collective efficacy)is somewhat counterintuitive,but rests on team member perception that they now view themselves as more competent than others in the organization who were not chosen to complete such difficult goals.This in turn,can lead to higher levels of performance.Goal acceptance and specificity is also applicable to the team setting.When team members individually and collectively commit to team goals,team effectiveness is increased and is a function of increased supportive team behaviors.

As related to the team setting,it is also important to be aware of the interplay between the goals of individual contributors that participate on teams and the goals of the teams themselves.The selection of team goals must be done in coordination with the selection of goals for individuals.Individual goals must be in line with team goals(or not exist at all)to be effective.For example,a professional ball player that does well in his/her sport is rewarded individually for excellent performance.This individual performance generally contributes to improved team performance which can,in turn,lead to team recognition,such as a league championship.

Maslow‘s hierarchy of needs is often portrayed in the shape of a pyramid with the largest,most fundamental levels of needs at the bottom and the need for self-actualization at the top.

Maslow‘s theory suggests that the most basic level of needs must be met before the individual will strongly desire(or focus motivation upon)the secondary or higher level needs.

Physiological needs

Physiological needs are the physical requirements for human survival.If these requirements are not met,the human body cannot function properly and will ultimately fail.Physiological needs are thought to be the most important;they should be met first.

Air,water,and food are metabolic requirements for survival in all animals,including humans.Clothing and shelter provide necessary protection from the elements.While maintaining an adequate birth rate shapes the intensity of the human sexual instinct.

Safety needs

With their physical needs relatively satisfied,come the individual‘s safety needs.In the absence of physical safety-due to war,natural disaster,family violence,childhood abuse,etc.-people may(re-)experience stress disorder.In the absence of economic safety-due to economic crisis and lack of work opportunities-these safety needs manifest themselves in ways such as a preference for job security,savings accounts,insurance policies,reasonable disability accommodations,etc.

Love and belonging

After physiological and safety needs are fulfilled,the third level of human needs is interpersonal and involves feelings of belongingness.This need is especially strong in childhood and can override the need for safety as witnessed in children who cling to abusive parents.Deficiencies within this level of Maslow‘s hierarchy can impact the individual‘s ability to form and maintain emotionally significant relationships in general,such as:

·Friendship

·Intimacy

·Family

According to Maslow,humans need to feel a sense of belonging and acceptance among their social groups,regardless whether these groups are large or small.For example,some large social groups may include clubs,co-workers,religious groups,professional organizations,sports teams,and gangs.Some examples of small social connections include family members,intimate partners,mentors,colleagues,and confidants.Humans need to love and be loved-both sexually and non-sexually-by others.Many people become susceptible to loneliness,social anxiety,and clinical depression in the absence of this love or belonging element.This need for belonging may overcome the physiological and security needs,depending on the strength of the peer pressure.

Esteem

All humans have a need to feel respected;this includes the need to have self-esteem and self-respect.Esteem presents the typical human desire to be accepted and valued by others.People often engage in a profession or hobby to gain recognition.These activities give the person a sense of contribution or value.Low self-esteem or an inferiority complex may result from imbalances during this level in the hierarchy.People with low self-esteem often need respect from others;they may feel the need to seek fame or glory.However,fame or glory will not help the person to build their self-esteem until they accept who they are internally.Psychological imbalances such as depression can hinder the person from obtaining a higher level of self-esteem or self-respect.

Most people have a need for stable self-respect and self-esteem.Maslow noted two versions of esteem needs:a“lower”version and a“higher”version.The“lower”version of esteem is the need for respect from others.This may include a need for status,recognition,fame,prestige,and attention.The“higher”version manifests itself as the need for self-respect.For example,the person may have a need for strength,competence,mastery,self-confidence,independence,and freedom.Deprivation of these needs may lead to an inferiority complex,weakness,and helplessness.

Maslow states that while he originally thought the needs of humans had strict guidelines,the“hierarchies are interrelated rather than sharply separated”.This means that esteem and the subsequent levels are not strictly separated;instead,the levels are closely related.

Self-actualization

“What a man can be,he must be.”This quotation forms the basis of the perceived need for self-actualization.This level of need refers to what a person‘s full potential is and the realization of that potential.Maslow describes this level as the desire to accomplish everything that one can,to become the most that one can be.Individuals may perceive or focus on this need very specifically.For example,one individual may have the strong desire to become an ideal parent.In another,the desire may be expressed athletically.For others,it may be expressed in paintings,pictures,or inventions.As previously mentioned,Maslow believed that to understand this level of need,the person must not only achieve the previous needs,but master them.

Personnel recruitment and selection

Personnel recruitment is the process of identifying qualified candidates in the workforce and getting them to apply for jobs within an organization.Personnel recruitment processes include developing job announcements,placing ads,defining key qualifications for applicants,and screening out unqualified applicants.

Personnel selection is the systematic process of hiring and promoting personnel.Personnel selection systems employ evidence-based practices to determine the most qualified candidates.Personnel selection involves both the newly hired and individuals who can be promoted from within the organization.Common selection tools include ability tests,knowledge tests,personality tests,structured interviews,the systematic collection of biographical data,and work samples.

Performance appraisal/management

Performance appraisal or performance evaluation is the process of measuring an individual‘s or a group‘s work behaviors and outcomes against the expectations of the job.Performance appraisal is frequently used in promotion and compensation decisions,to help design and validate personnel selection procedures,and for performance management.Performance management is the process of providing performance feedback relative to expectations and improvement information(e.g.coaching,mentoring).Performance management may also include documenting and tracking performance information for organization-level evaluation purposes.

Training and training evaluation

Training is the systematic acquisition of skills,concepts,or attitudes that results in improved performance in another environment.Most people hired for a job are not already versed in all the tasks required to perform the job effectively.Evidence indicates that training is effective and that these training expenditures are paying off in terms of higher net sales and gross profitability per employee.Training can be beneficial for the organization and for employees in terms of increasing their value to their organization as well as their employability in the broader marketplace.Many organizations are using training and development as a way to attract and retain their most successful employees.

Before training design issues are considered,a careful needs analysis is required to develop a systematic understanding of where training is needed,what needs to be taught or trained,and who will be trained.Training needs analysis typically involves a three-step process that includes organizational analysis,task analysis and person analysis.Organizational analysis examines organizational goals,available resources,and the organizational environment to determine where training should be directed.This analysis identifies the training needs ofdifferent departments or subunits and systematically assessing manager,peer,and technological support for transfer of training.Organizational analysis also takes into account the climate of the organization and its subunits.For example,if a climate for safety is emphasized throughout the organization or in particular parts of the organization(e.g.,production),then training needs will likely reflect this emphasis.Task analysis uses the results from job analysis on determining what is needed for successful job performance and then determines what the content of training should be.Task analysis can consist of developing task statements,determining homogeneous task clusters,and identifying KSAOs(knowledge,skills,abilities,other characteristics)required for the job.With organizations increasingly trying to identify“core competencies”that are required for all jobs,task analysis can also include an assessment of competencies.Person analysis identifies which individuals within an organization should receive training and what kind of instruction they need.Employee needs can be assessed using a variety of methods that identify weaknesses that training and development can address.The needs analysis makes it possible to identify the training program‘s objectives,which in turn,represents the information for both the trainer and trainee about what is to be learned for the benefit of the organization.

Therefore with any training program it is key to establish specific training objectives.

·To identify the abilities required to perform increasingly complex jobs.

·To provide job opportunities for unskilled workers.

·To assist supervisors in the management of an ethnically diverse workforce.

·To retain workers displaced by changing economic,technological,and political forces.

·To help organizations remain competitive in the international marketplace.

·To conduct the necessary research to determine the effectiveness of training programs.

Innovation

Innovation is often considered a form of productive behavior that employees exhibit when they come up with novel ideas that further the goals of the organization.Research indicates if various skills,knowledge,and abilities are present then an individual will be more apt to innovation.These qualities are generally linked to creativity.

In addition to the role and characteristics of the individual,one must consider what it is that may be done on an organizational level to develop and reward innovation.Four specific characteristics that may predict innovation within an organization have been identified as follows.

1.A population with high levels of technical knowledge

2.The organization‘s level of specialization

3.The level an organization communicates externally

4.Functional Differentiation.

Additionally,organizations could use and institutionalize many participatory systemprocesses,which could breed innovation in the workplace.Some of these items include providing creativity training,having leaders encourage and model innovation,allowing employees to question current procedures and rules,seeing that the implementation of innovations had real consequences,documenting innovations in a professional manner,allowing employees to have autonomy and freedom in their job roles,reducing the number of obstacles that may be in the way of innovation,and giving employees access to resources(whether these are monetary,informational,or access to key people inside or outside of the organization).

Motivation in the workplace

Work motivation is a set of energetic forces that originate both within as well as beyond an individual‘s being,to initiate work-related behavior,and to determine its form,direction,intensity,and duration.Motivation can often be used as a tool to help predict behavior,it varies greatly among individuals and must often be combined with ability and environmental factors to actually influence behavior and performance.Because of motivation‘s role in influencing workplace behavior and performance,it is key for organizations to understand and to structure the work environment to encourage productive behaviors and discourage those that are unproductive.

Motivation serves to direct attention,focusing on particular issues,people,tasks,etc.It also serves to stimulate an employee to put forth effort.Next,motivation results in persistence,preventing one from deviating from the goal-seeking behavior.Finally,motivation results in task strategies,which are patterns of behavior produced to reach a particular goal.

Counterproductive work behavior

Counterproductive work behavior(CWB)can be defined as employee behavior that goes against the goals of an organization.These behaviors can be intentional or unintentional and result from a wide range of underlying causes and motivations.There is evidence that an emotional response(e.g.anger)to job stress(e.g.unfair treatment)can motivate CWBs.

The forms of counterproductive behavior with the most empirical examination are ineffective job performance,absenteeism,job turnover,and accidents.Less common but potentially more detrimental forms of counterproductive behavior have also been investigated including violence and sexual harassment.

Occupational health and wellbeing

Staying vigorous during working hours is important for work-related behavior.Positive relationships are found between job satisfaction and life satisfaction,happiness,positive affect,and the absence of negative affect and feelings of positive wellbeing.The negative health impacts are also looked at on mature-aged unemployment.Results indicated that attempts should be made to reduce physical demands over older employees at work,to help improve their health and well-being. 8Lm2YP8O5iuhICD2AERGIYRpWniwHu2y+JBqxPnI0ZkYAv94RsciZ04PoHvaCZAo