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回顾过去一个半世纪的俄美关系——那时这一关系 并非 世界政治最为关键的问题,有什么模式会从中显露出来吗?有一个模式似乎特别突出:

只要是俄国人和美国人出于世界地位的考虑而最大化地追逐利益,彼此之间就很少有冲突。不论是在19世纪的大部分时间里反对英国,或是在20世纪前半叶两次反对德国,还是自1945年起为避免相互毁灭的真实威胁而以某种方式设法维护和平,尽管两国国内制度存在根本性差异,但共同威胁仍促进了合作。我们可能发现,这种合作并不易于商定或维持。曾经几度,某一方期望合作以不同的方式进行,或期望合作产生不同的结果。但事实却是,当我们不得不合作时我们进行了合作,这一事实本身就足以说明我们的最终利益所在。

我们两个国家的敌对,最经常是因一方设法改变另一方的内部制度而起,而不是由我们内部制度的差异所致,尽管这些差异是实际存在的。双方在过去都曾做出过此类努力:美国以普遍关切人权的方式,苏联则以号召世界革命的方式。就实现这些野心勃勃的目标而言,没有一方是成功的或看似成功的。但通过将这些内部关注扩展到外部,我们设法让那些在世界政治上追求共同利益的行动比以前更为困难。

我们无须深究在多大程度上这一倾向今天仍在持续,而只能期望,钟摆将会及时回摆,更大程度地意识到历史昭示我们的共同责任,远离我们共同设法改变对方的不良习惯。

注释

[1] Foster Rhea Dulles, The Road to Teheran: The Story of Russia and America,1781—1943 (Princeton: 1944),p.261.

[2] Thomas A.Bailey, America Faces Russia: Russian-American Relations from Early Times to Our Own Day (Ithaca: 1950),p.355.

[3] 关于近期的例子的相反的观点参见Nikolai V.Sivachev and Nikolai N.Yakovlev, Russia and the United States ,translated by Olga Adler Titelbaum(Chicago: 1979);以及John Lewis Gaddis, Russia,the Soviet Union,and the United States: An Interpretive History (New York: 1978)。

[4] N.N.Bolkhovitinov, The Beginnings of Russian-American Relations: 1775—1815 ,translated by Elena Levin(Cambridge,Massachusetts: 1975),p.355.

[5] Sivachev and Yakovlev, Russia and the United States ,p.9.

[6] 对这一被忽视的主题的最好论述参见Alan Dowty, The Limits of American Isolation: The United States and the Crimean War (New York: 1971)。也可参见Kenneth Bourne, Britain and the Balance of Power in North America ,1815—1908(Berkeley: 1967),pp.170—205。

[7] D.P.Crook, The North,the South,and the Powers ,1861—1865(New York: 1974),pp.223—227,252—253.

[8] 对这一问题仍未被超越的经典论述参见Edward H.Zabriskie, American-Russian Rivalry in the Far East: A Study in Diplomacy and Power Politics (Philadelphia: 1946)。但还可参见Pauline Tompkins, American-Russian Relations in the Far East (New York: 1949)。

[9] 相互对立的观点最明显地体现在George F.Kennan, American Diplomacy ,1900—1950(Chicago: 1951); and William Appleman Williams, The Tragedy of American Diplomacy ,Revised Edition(New York: 1962)。最中性的论述是Marilyn Blatt Young, The Rhetoric of Empire: American China Policy ,1895—1901(Cambridge,Massachusetts: 1968)。

[10] 关于这一点参见Raymond A.Esthus, Theodore Roosevelt and the International Rivalries (Waltham,Massachusetts: 1970),pp.28—31。

[11] Walter V. and Marie V.Scholes, The Foreign Policies of the Taft Administration (Columbia,Missouri: 1970),pp.109—248.

[12] 对这一传统最明确的表述是John Quincy Adams's Independence Day address,July 4,1821,引自E.H.Tatum, The United States and Europe,1815—1823: A Study in the Background of the Monroe Doctrine (Berkeley: 1936),pp.241—245。

[13] D.A.Graber, Crisis Diplomacy: A History of U.S.Intervention Policies and Practices (Washington: 1959),pp.51—62.也可参见Donald S.Spencer, Louis Kossuth and Young America: A Study of Sectionalism and Foreign Policy ,1848—1852(Columbia,Missouri: 1977)。

[14] John Kutolowski,“The Effect of the Polish Insurrection of 1863 on American Civil War Diplomacy,” The Historian ,Vol.27(August,1965),560—577.

[15] 参见Ann E.Healy,“Tsarist Anti-Semitism and Russian-American Relations,” Slavic Review, XLII(Fall,1983),408—424。

[16] 对凯南作用的全面讨论参见Taylor Stults,“Imperial Russia Through American Eyes,1894—1904”(Ph.D.Dissertation,University of Missouri,1970);以及Frederick F.Travis,“George Kennan and Russia,1865—1905”(Ph.D.Dissertation,Emory University,1974)。也可见一个俄国人的自传E.I.Melamed, Dzhordzh Kennan protiv tsarizma (Moscow: 1981)。

[17] 关于这一系列事件的讨论参见Gaddis, Russia,the Soviet Union,and the United States ,pp.41—54。

[18] Taylor Stults,“Roosevelt,Russian Persecution of Jews,and American Public Opinion,” Jewish Social Studies ,XXIII(January,1971),13—22; Philip Ernest Schoenberg,“The American Reaction to the Kishinev Pogrom of 1903,” American Jewish Historical Quarterly ,LXIII(March,1974),262—283.

[19] Naomi K.Cohen,“The Abrogation of the Russo-American Treaty of 1832,” Jewish Social Studies ,XXV(January,1963),3—41; Clifford L.Egan,“Pressure Groups,the Department of State and the Abrogation of the Russian-American Treaty of 1832,” Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society ,CXV(August,1971),328—334.

[20] 转引自Zabriskie, American-Russian Rivalry ,pp.120—121。也可参见Gaddis, Russia,the Soviet Union,and the United States ,p.41。

[21] Sivachev and Yakovlev, Russia and the United States ,pp.17—18.

[22] 关于威尔逊进行干涉的复杂动机的讨论参见John A.White, The Siberian Intervention (Princeton: 1950); Betty M.Unterberger, America's Siberia Expedition ,1918—1920(Durham: 1956); George F.Kennan, Soviet-American Relations,1917—1920: The Decision to Intervene (Princeton: 1958); and Robert J.Maddox, The Unknown War with Russia: Wilson's Siberian Intervention (San Rafael,California: 1977)。

[23] 倾向于强调威尔逊反对布尔什维克主义的著作包括Arno J.Mayer, The Politics and Diplomacy of Peacemaking: Containment and Counterrevolution at Versailles,1918—1919 (New York: 1967); N.Gordon Levin, Woodrow Wilson and World Politics (New York: 1968);苏联方面的著作是L.A.Gvishiani, Sovetskaia Rossiia i SShA,1917—1920g .(Moscow: 1970)。

[24] 例如可参见Sivachev and Yakovlev, Russia and the United States ,pp.34—36。

[25] 我从以下著述中发现了这一论调V.L.Mal'kov,“From Intervention to Recognition: On the History of the Political Stuggle in the United States on the Question of Normalizing Soviet-American Relations,”这是为1984年6月在基辅举办的第五届苏联和美国历史学家座谈会所准备的论文,特别是该文第2—15页。以及Sivachev and Yakovlev, Russia and the United States ,pp.62—67,77—84。关于当时苏联官员的态度参见Gaddis, Russia,the Soviet Union,and the United States ,pp.87—93。

[26] 关于这一点参见John Milton Cooper,Jr., The Warrior and the Priest: Woodrow Wilson and Theodore Roosevelt (Cambridge,Massachusetts: 1983),p.268。

[27] R.Sh.Ganelin, Rossiia i SShA,1914—1917 (Leningrad: 1969).

[28] Gaddis, Russia,the Soviet Union,and the United States ,pp.50—53.也可参见Sivachev and Yakovlev, Russia and the United States ,pp.25—27,该书将美国对俄国经济影响的日益增长归结为沙皇体制的削弱,“它不再有力量防御自身免遭美国资本的渗透”。

[29] Chicherin report to the Central Executive Committee,January 27,1922,in Jane Degras,ed., Soviet Documents on Foreign Policy ,1917—1941(London: 1951—1953),I,291—292.

[30] 参见Lenin's speech in Moscow,November 27,1920, ibid .,pp.223—224;及Anthony Sutton, Western Technology and Soviet Economic Development: 1917 to 1930 (Stanford: 1968),pp.346—348。

[31] Joan Hoff Wilson, Ideology and Economics: United States Relations with the Soviet Union ,1918—1933(Columbia,Missouri: 1974),p.48.

[32] 通常的解释参见Robert Paul Browder, The Origins of Soviet-American Diplomacy (Princeton: 1953); Donald G.Bishop, The Roosevelt-Litvinov Agreements: The American View (Syracuse: 1965); and Edward M.Bennett, Recognition of Russia: An American Foreign Policy Dilemma (Waltham,Massachusetts: 1970)。

[33] 美国对苏联出口占美国总出口比例如下:1929: 1.54%; 1930: 2.89%; 1931: 4.24%; 1932: 0.78%; 1933: 0.53%; 1934: 0.70%; 1935: 1.08%; 1936: 1.36%; 1937: 1.28%; 1938: 2.07%; 1939: 1.81%; 1940: 2.16%。资料来源:U.S.Department of Commerce, Statistical Abstract of the United States : 1933,1937,1941(Washington: 1933,1938,1942)。

[34] Wilson, Ideology and Economics ,pp.120—130.

[35] Litvinov to the Soviet Foreign Ministry,November 8, 17, 1933, Dokumenty vneshneipolitiki SSSR (Moscow: 1957— ),XVI,609,658—659.

[36] 参见Robert Dallek, Franklin D.Roosevelt and American Foreign Policy ,1932—1945(New York: 1979),p.321。

[37] Ibid.,p.68; Wayne S.Cole, Roosevelt and the Isolationists ,1932—1945(Lincoln,Nebraska: 1983),p.243.

[38] 参见Thomas R.Maddux, Years of Estrangement: American Relations with the Soviet Union ,1933—1941(Tallahassee: 1980),pp.44—68; and Hugh DeSantis, The Diplomacy of Silence: The American Foreign Service,the Soviet Union,and the Cold War ,1933—1945(Chicago: 1980),pp.11—44。

[39] Maddux, Years of Estrangement ,pp.69—80.

[40] Thomas R.Maddux,“United States-Soviet Naval Relations in the 1930's: The Soviet Union's Efforts to Purchase Naval Vessels,” Naval War College Review ,XXIX(Fall,1976),28—37.

[41] Gaddis, Russia,the Soviet Union and the United States ,pp.138—145.

[42] 关于这一点参见Seweryn Bialer, The Soviet Paradox: External Expansion,Internal Decline (New York: 1986),p.260。 3g0Sg3ZeFA37I/6DWUKrOp4S6DkWh0zGM4eh0pFfllRTDiJQLUILZRdqXsAs6X2U

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