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I. Fill in the blanks.
1. Language, broadly speaking, is a means of _____ communication.
【答案】 verbal
【解析】 语言是一种口头交流的手段。
2. In any language words can be used in new ways to mean new thingsand can be combined into innumerable sentences based on limited rules. Thisfeature is usually termed _____.
【答案】 productivity
【解析】 用有限表现无限就是能产性。
3. Linguistics is the scientific study of _____.
【答案】 language
【解析】 语言学是对语言的科学研究。
4. Modern linguistic is _____ in the sense that the linguist triesto discover what language is rather than lay down some rules for people toobserve.
【答案】 descriptive
【解析】 发现语言的规律而不是规定就是描述性。
5. One general principle of linguistic analysis is the primacy of _____over writing.
【答案】 speech
【解析】 语言学研究是以口头为基础而不是书面。
6. Theory that primitive manmade involuntary vocal noises whileperforming heavy work has been called the _____ theory.
【答案】 yo-he-ho
【解析】 语言的起源有“汪汪”理论，“噗噗”理论和“哟嘿吼”理论。“哟嘿吼”理论语言起源于原始人共同劳动时发出的有节奏的哼哟声。
7. The term ______ originates from Malinowski’s study of thefunctions of language performed by Trobriand Islanders. It refers to the socialinteraction of language. （中山大学2006研）
【答案】 phatic communion
【解析】 寒暄功能是指那些有助于确立和维持人际关系的表达，最先由Malinowski提出。
8. Our language can be used to talk about itself. This is the _____ functionof language.（中山大学2005研）
【答案】 metalingual
【解析】 语言的元语言功能是指语言可以用来讨论语言本身。
9. Halliday proposes a theory of metafunctions of language, that is,language has _____, interpersonal and textual functions.（中山大学2008研）
【答案】 ideational
【解析】 韩理德将儿童的语言功能范围逐渐缩小，简化成为一套高度符号化和抽象化的功能：概念、人际、语篇功能。
10. _____ function is realized by mood and modality.（中山大学2006研）
【答案】 Interpersonal
【解析】 人际功能通过语气情态实现。
11. When language is used for establishing an atmosphere ormaintaining social contact rather than exchanging information or ideas, itsfunction is _____ function.（北二外2005研）
【答案】 phatic
【解析】 寒暄功能是指那些有助于确立和维持人际关系的表达，例如俚语、玩笑、行话、礼节性的问候、社会方言或地域方言的转用等。
12. The features that define our human languages can be called _____ features.（北二外2006研）
【答案】 design
【解析】 人类语言区别于其他动物交流系统的特点是语言的区别特征，是人类语言特有的特征。
II. Multiple Choices.
1. Which of the following statement is NOT true? （大连外国语学院2008研）
A. Language is ameans of vocal communication.
B. Language isinstrumental.
C. Language issocial and conventional.
【答案】 B
【解析】 语言不是机械的工具的，而是一种交流方式。
2. The functions of language do NOT include _____. （大连外国语学院2008研）
A. informativefunction
B. interpersonalfunction
C. metacognitivefunction
【答案】 C
【解析】 语言的主要功能包括寒暄功能，指示功能，信息功能，疑问功能，表达功能，施为功能，和劝说功能。
3. The most important sociological use of language is the _____ function,by which people establish and maintain their status in a society. （西安外国语学院2006研）
A. performative
B. interpersonal
C. phatic
D. metalingual
【答案】 B
【解析】 语言最重要的社会功能是人际功能。
4. Study the following dialogue. What function does it playaccording to the functions of language?
—A nice day,isn’t it?
—Right! I reallyenjoy the sunlight.
A. Emotive.
B. Phatic.
C. Performative.
D.Interpersonal.
【答案】 B
【解析】 谈论天气的问候语体现了语言的寒暄功能。
5. Which of the following statements is true of Jacobson’s frameworkof language functions?
A. Thereferential function is to indulge in language for its own sake.
B. The emotivefunction is to convey message and information.
C. The conativefunction is to clear up intentions, words and meanings.
D. The phaticfunction is to establish communion with others.
【答案】 D
【解析】 所指功能是指用语言来传达信息，情感功能是表达一种态度，感受；意动功能是通过命令和恳求说服影响他人。
6. The function of the sentence“Water boils at 100 degree Centigrade”is _____.
A. interrogative
B. directive
C. informative
D. performative
【答案】 C
【解析】 语言的信息功能是指语言用来陈述某件事情，提供信息或用作推理。
7. The functions of language do NOT include _____.（大连外国语学院2008研）
A. informativefunction
B. interpersonalfunction
C. metacognitivefunction
【答案】 C
【解析】 语言的主要功能包括信息功能，人际功能，施为功能，感情功能，寒暄功能，元语言功能和娱乐功能。
8. The theory that language arose from human beings’ instinctiveneed for contact with his companion has been called the ____theory.
A. contact
B. sing-song
C. pooh-pooh
D. ding-dong
【答案】 A
【解析】 contact theory接触理论，讲的是人类在本能上需要有和周围人交流。sing-song理论认为肢体活动先于语言，语言是无意间从声音上模仿肢体活发展而来的。“pooh-pooh”理论认为最初的语言是人们通过情感激发出的本能的声音。“ding-dong”理论认为最初的语言是人类模仿或者协调周围环境而创造出来的声音。“ding-dong”理论认为最初的语言是人类模仿或者协调周围环境而创造出来的声音。
9. The “ta-ta” theory is sometimes called the ____ theory.
A. musical
B. pooh-pooh
C. ding-dong
D. sing-song
【答案】 D
【解析】 “ta-ta” theory认为肢体活动先于语言，语言是无意间从声音上模仿肢体活动发展而来的。它和sing-song理论只是名字不同，而内涵一样。
10. The ____ theory states that language developed from meaningfulgestures.
A. bow-wow
B. ta-ta
C. ding-dong
D. sing-song
【答案】 B
【解析】 “ta-ta” theory认为肢体活动先于语言，语言是无意间从声音上模仿肢体活发展而来的。
11. Language at first consisted of ____ ejaculations of pain, fear,surprise, pleasure, anger and so on.
A. rhythmical
B. imitative
C. expressive
D. emotional
【答案】 D
【解析】 在最初的生活中，如同动物一般，人类由于痛苦，害怕，开心等情感产生了一些喊声和叫声，这就是语言的始祖，慢慢地，这些喊声被越来越广泛的运用了，于是便成了语言。
12. Language is____
A. instinctive
B.non-instinctive
C. static
D. geneticallytransmitted
【答案】 B
【解析】 语言是人类特有的非本能的交流方式。近代科学实验表明，语言并不像人们通常所想，是本能的，或靠基因遗传的，而是只有在一定的社会环境中才能形成。语言也不是固定不变的，它随着社会的发展不断得到扩展和更新。
13. The theory that primitive language was an imitation of naturalsound, such as animal cries, has been called the____ theory.
A. yo-he-ho
B. pooh-pooh
C. ding-dong
D. bow-wow
【答案】 D
【解析】 “bow-wow”理论认为最初的语言是人们模仿周围大自然的声音，比如说，动物的叫声。“yo-he-ho”理论认为最初的语言是在日常劳动作业过程中，人们的喉咙所发出的声音。“poo-poo”理论认为最初的语言是人们通过情感激发出的本能的声音。“ding-dong”理论认为最初的语言是人类模仿或者协调周围环境而创造出来的声音。
14. The theory that language was a kind of song without words hasbeen known as the____ theory.
A. pooh-pooh
B. sing-song
C. bow-wow
D. yo-he-ho
【答案】 B
【解析】 “sing-song”理论认为先有感叹吟唱，然后有文字语言。“poo-poo”理论认为最初的语言是人们通过情感激发出的本能的声音。“yo-he-ho”理论认为词语是由锻炼身体的咕哝声发展而来。“yuk-yuk”理论中语言来源于人们由于紧急事件或出于兴奋而发出来的声音。
III. True or False.
1. Wherever humans exist, language exists. （对外经贸2006研）
【答案】 F
【解析】 语言是在人类出现相当一段时间之后才出现的。
2. Onomatopoeic words can show the arbitrary nature of language. （清华2000研）
【答案】 F
【解析】 拟声词表明语言并不是完全任意的，一些拟声词的发音与其意义还是有一定联系的。
3. The bow-wow theory is a theory on the origin of language.（大连外国语学院2008研）
【答案】 T
【解析】 语言的起源包括“汪汪”，“噗噗”等理论。
4. When language is used to get information from others, it servesan informative function. （清华2001研）
【答案】 F
【解析】 语言是用来陈述某件事情，提供信息或用作推理，信息功能是语言最重要的功能，一般出现在陈述句中。
5. Prescriptive linguistics is more popular than descriptivelinguistics, because it can tell us how to speak correct language.
【答案】 F
【解析】 描写式和规定式的语言学是分析语言的两种不同的方法，不能简单的说谁好谁坏之说。
6. The phatic function refers to language function for establishingor maintaining social contact rather than for exchanging information or ideas. （清华2001研）
【答案】 T
【解析】 寒暄功能是指建立与保持社交联络而不是交换信息。
7. Onomatopoeic words are totally arbitrary.
【答案】 F
【解析】 拟声词并不完全是任意的，与其表达的声音具有一定的相似性。
8. Language is a system of arbitrary, written signs which permit allthe people in a given culture, or other people who have learned the system ofthat culture, to communicate or interact.
【答案】 F
【解析】 应该是口头而不是书面。
9. It is conclusive that Chinese is regarded as the primevallanguage.（清华2000研）
【答案】 F
【解析】 汉语是经过长期发展而来的高级语言而不是一种原始语言。
IV. Explain the following terms.
1. Phaticfunction(communion) （武汉大学2005研）
Key: The phatic function of languagerefers to the use of the language which often consists of small, seeminglymeaningless expression for setting up a certain atmosphere or maintainingsocial contacts rather than for exchanging information or ideas. For example,greetings, farewells, and comments on the weather in English could serve thisfunction.
2. Function
Key: It refers to the role languageplays in communication (e. g. to express ideas, attitudes) or in particularsocial situations (e. g. religious, legal).
3. Functionalism
Key: Functionalism or functionallinguistics refers to the study of the forms of language in reference to theirsocial function in communication. Functionalism tends to explain the forms oflanguage by attributing a determining role of its function.
4. Metalanguage
Key: It is a language used fortalking about language
V. Briefly explain or answer the followingquestions.
1. Briefly explain how language is (a) systematic,(b) symbolic, and (c) social. （北外2011研）
Key: First, language is systematic: itconsists of recurrent elements which occur in regular patterns of relationships.All languages have an infinite number of possible sentences, and the vastmajority of all sentences which are used have not been memorized. They arecreated according to rules or principles which speakers are usually unconsciousof using or even of knowing if they acquired the language as a young child.
Second, language is symbolic: sequences of sounds or letters do notinherently possess meaning. The meanings of symbols in a language come throughthe tacit agreement of a group of speakers.
Third, language is social: each language reflects the socialrequirements of the society that use it, and there is no standard for judging: whetherone language is more effective for communication than another, other than toestimate the success its users may have in achieving the social tasks that aredemanded of them.
（考查语言的系统性，象征性及社会性。）
2. What is the directive function? （西安交大2008研）
Key: Directive function is one offunctions of language. Language is used to get the hearer to do something. Mostimperative sentences are of this function. For example, the sentence “Closeyour book and listen to me carefully!” performs a directive function. Othersyntactic structures or sentences of other sorts can, according to J. Austinand J. Searle’s “Indirect speech act theory” at least, serve the purpose ofdirection too, e.g., “If I were you, I would have blushed to the bottom of myears!”
3. How well, in your opinion, does the word“communication” represent the function of human language? （北二外2008研）
Key: We use language for an almostinfinite number of purposes, from writing letters to gossiping with ourfriends, making speeches and talking to ourselves in the mirror. But the primaryfunction of language is to transmit information and to convey commands,feelings and emotions. That is, language is a tool of communication. The term “communication”can be used to cover much of the function of language. This function can befurther divided into more specific functions, such as phaticfunction/communion, directive function, informative function, interrogativefunction, expressive function, evocative function, performative function etc.
4. What’s your understanding of language?
Key: Language is a system of vocalsymbols used for human communication. Language must be a system, since elementsin it are arranged according to certain rules; they cannot be combined at will.Language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no logic connection betweenthe word and the thing it refers to. Language has symbolic nature: words areassociated with objects, actions, ideas by convention. For all languages, theprimary medium is sound, no matter how well developed are their writing system.Language is human-specific, it is very different from the communication systemother forms of life possess.
5. Briefly explain what phonetics and phonologyare concerned with and what kind of relationships hold between the two.（北外2002研）
Key: By definition, phonetics is thestudy of speech sounds, including the production of speech, while phonology isthe study of the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing ofspeech sounds and the shape of syllables. Both phonetics and phonology areconcerned with speech. Phonetics is the study of the production, perception,and physical properties of speech sounds; phonology attempts to account for howthey are combined, organized, and convey meaning in particular languages. Phoneticsis the study of actual sounds, that is, the analysis and modeling the speechsignal; phonology is concerned with a more abstract description of speechsounds and tries to describe the regularities of sound patterns in differentlanguages or within a language. In this sense, phonetics is concrete, whilephonology is abstract. What phonetics studies is the speech sound, namelyphone, what phonology studies is phoneme.
6. Why do we say language is primarily vocal? （厦门大学 2009研）
Key: Language is a system ofarbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Language is primarilyvocal, because sound or speech is the primary medium for all human languages,developed or “new”. Writing systems came much later than the spoken forms. Thefact that small children learn and can only learn to speak (and listen) beforethey write (and read) also indicates that language is primarily vocal, ratherthan written. The term “human” in the definition is meant to specify thatlanguage is human specific.
7. Can you think of some words in English whichare onomatopoeic?
Key: Creak: the sound made by abadly oiled door when it opens.
Cuckoo: the call of cuckoo.
Bang: a sudden loud noise.
Roar: a deep loud continuing sound.
Buzz: a noise of buzzing.
Hiss: a hissing sound.
Neigh: the long and loud cry that a horse makes.
Mew: the noise that a gull makes.
Bleat: the sound made by a sheep, goat or calf.
8. Do you think that onomatopoeia indicates anon-arbitrary relationship between form and meaning?
Key: No matter whether you say “Yes”or “No”, you cannot deny that onomatopoeia needs arbitrariness. Before we feela word is onomatopoeic we should first know which sound the word imitates. Justas what is said in Chapter One, in order to imitate the noise of flyingmosquitoes, there are many choices like “murmurous” and “murderous”. Theyboth bear more or less resemblance to the genuine natural sound, but“murmurous” is fortunately chosen to mean the noise while “murderous” is chosento mean something quite different. They are arbitrary as signifiers.
9. Communication can take many forms, such assign, speech, body language and facial expression. Do body language and facialexpression share or lack the distinctive properties of human language?
Key: On the whole, body language andfacial expression lack most of the distinctive properties of human languagesuch as duality, displacement, creativity and so on. Body language exhibitsarbitrariness a little hit. For instance, nod means “OK/YES” for us but inArabian world it is equal to saying “NO”. Some facial expressions havenon-arbitrariness because they are instinctive such as the cry and laugh of anewborn infant.
10. Can you mention some typical expressions ofphatic communion in Chinese? There is the dialogue between Ms. P and Ms. Q. onp.12. When someone sneezes violently, do you say anything of the nature ofphatic c0mmunion’! Have you noticed your parents or grand-parents say somethingspecial on such an occasion?
Key: Some of the typical phaticexpressions in Chinese are：吃了吗? 家里都好吧？这是去哪里呀？最近都挺好的？
If someone is sneezing violently, maybe your parents andgrandparents may say: “Are you ok?”, “Do you need to see a doctor?”, “Do youneed some water?”, “Do you need a handkerchief?”, “Do you have a cold?” “orsomething like these to show their concerns.
11. There are many expressions in language whichare metalingual or self-reflexives, namely, talking about talk and think aboutthinking, for instance, to be honest, to make a long story short, come to thinkof it, on second thought, can you collect a few more to make a list of theseexpressions? When do we use them most often?
Key: There are many expressions suchas to tell the truth, frankly speaking, as a matter of fact, to be precise, inother words, that is to say, Such expressions are used most frequently when wewant to expatiate the meaning of former clauses in another way inargumentation.
12. What are the major functions of language? Thinkof your own examples for illustration.
Key: The three major functions oflanguage are the descriptive function, the expressive function and the socialfunction,
The descriptive function is also referred to as the cognitive, orreferential function. It is assumed to be the primary function of language. Itis the function to convey factual information which can be asserted or denied,and in some cases even verified. E.g. “The disaster is the most serious one thecountry has ever seen."
The expressive function is also called the emotive or attitudinal function.It supplied information about the user's feelings, preferences, prejudices andvalues. The example is "I will never go there for the rest of mylife."
The social function is also referred to as the interpersonalfunction. It serves to establish and maintain social relations between people,e.g. "How are you doing recently?"
VI. Essay questions.
1. Illustrate the significance of studying speechSounds in linguistics. （大连外国语学院2008研）
Key: Language is first and foremosta “system of vocal symbols”. Human beings are capable of making all kinds ofsounds, but only some of these sounds have become units in the language system,as we have seen in the discussion of language Speech sounds had existed long beforewriting was invented, and even today, in some parts of the world, there arestill languages that have no writing systems. Therefore, the study of speechsounds is a major part of linguistics.
Analysis of speech sounds can be approached on two levels: phoneticsand phonology. The formal deals with speech organs and their functions, speechsounds, waves carrying speech sounds, analysis and processing of the sounds bythe listener. The latter is concerned with the organization of speech withinspecific languages, or with the systems and patterns of sounds that occur inparticular languages. Both phonetics and phonology are main branches oflinguistics.
To study speech sounds, linguistics need to analyze the minuteprocesses and activities of the speaker and explain the way speech organs moveto convey meaning. The theory and methods thus developed can be applied tonumerous other fields. For example, people who work in recording, language descriptionand language teaching all have some interest in phonetic knowledge while thosewho work in audiology, speech therapy and speech pathology must have a solidfoundation in phonetics and phonology.
2. Examine the following two statements aboutlanguage, and discuss the similarities and differences between them. Do youagree with the two statements? Explain your answer.
(1) Sapir (1921:Language): “Language is a purely human andnon-instinctive method of communicating ideas，emotions and desires by means of voluntarilyproduced symbols.”
(2) Bloch and Trager (1942: Outline of Linguistic Analysis): “Alanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols by means of which a socialgroup co-operates.” （北外2005研）
Key: Similarities:
(1) Both definitions stick to the fact that language is primarily amatter of speech because the primary medium of language is sound. Sapirillustrates this idea by implying that the produced symbols are auditory andBloch and Trager by explicitly using the word “vocal”.
(2) Both definitions allude to the fact that the association betweenthe words and the things that they denoted is rarely inherent, Sapir by usingthe word “symbols” and Bloch and Trager by placing emphasis on “arbitrary” and“symbols”.
Differences:
(1) Sapir’s definition emphasize that language relates to communicationbetween human beings. It is very different from the communication systems ofother creatures, such as bird songs and bee dances. Bloch and Trager do notclearly indicate this property, only saying that it is possessed by a socialgroup.
(2) Sapir also considers that language is “non-instinctive” and“voluntarily produced”. Thus for him language does not include such instinctiveforms of communication as smiling and cries of pain, etc. However, Bloch andTrager’s definition do not include this feature.
(3) The element “system” in Bloch and Trager’s definition reflectsthe fact that language provides us with the framework for generatingappropriate utterances rather than providing us with an infinite store ofready-made utterances. Still elements of lacunae are combined according torules.
(4) The function of language is indicated differently in twodefinitions. Sapir sees language as for communicating ideas, emotions anddesires, while Bloch and Trager considers it for a social group’s co-operation.Sapir’s definition proposes “communication” as the principal function oflanguage and specifies what is communicated; Bloch and Trager only vaguelypoints out that language can be used for co-operation.
Each of the two definitions has its own special emphasis, and it nottotally free from limitations. We think the two definitions grasp some definingproperties of language that distinguish it from any animal system ofcommunication, for example, “vocal”, “arbitrary”, “symbol”, “purely human”, “asystem”. But either has some limitation. As for Sapir’s definition, whether oneconsiders language to be instinctive or not is an issue. Language isinstinctive in so far as we are all born with a predisposition to speak, we allacquire a language without tuition and when we speak we do not consciouslyconvert our thoughts into speech. Language is, however, non-instinctive in thatwe can choose what to say or whether to say anything at all. Both thedefinition’s description of language’s function is not precise. Sapir’sdefinition confines language only to communicating ideas, emotions and desires,and Bloch and Trager’s definition does not point it out at all.
3. Linguistics is not the only field concernedwith language. Other disciplines such as sociology, psychology, ethnography arealso preoccupied with language. （中山大学2008研）
Key: Since language has bothindividual and social aspects, it is naturally of interest to psychologists andsociologists among others.
Many psychologists are interested to investigate the interrelationof language and mind, in processing and producing utterances and in languageacquisition for example, language development in the child, such as thetheories of language acquisition; biological foundations of language, and a bigtopic – the relationship between language and cognition, so there arepsycholinguistics.
Socialists who are interested in the relations between language andsociety do researches concerned both sociology and linguistics, including thesocial functions of language and the social characteristics of its users.
When anthropologists enlisted the help of linguists to studyunwritten languages, anthropology and linguistics became closely associated inthe early days of anthropological fieldwork. In contrast with other linguists,anthropological linguists are interested primarily in the history and structureof formerly unwritten languages. They are concerned with the emergence oflanguage and also with the divergence of languages over thousands of years.
Therefore, it is not surprising there are some branches ofmacrolinguistics that show an interdisciplinary nature.
4. What are the seven functions of humanlanguage? （人大2006研）
Key: According to Hu Zhuanglin,language has at least seven functions, and they are illustrated as follows:
(1) Informative function. It means that language is the instrumentof thought and language serves an informational function when used to tellsomething. It is also called ideational function in the framework of functionalgrammar. The declarative sentences such as “This is a book.” are the typicalillustration of this function.
(2) Interpersonal function. The interpersonal function means peoplecan use language to establish and maintain their status in a society. It is themost important sociological use of language. In the framework of functionalgrammar, this function is concerned with interaction between the addresser andaddressee in the discourse situation and the addresser's attitude toward whathe speaks or writes about. For example, the ways in which people address othersand refer to themselves (such as Dear Sir, Dear Professor, Johnny, yours, yourobedient servant) indicate the various grades of interpersonal relations.
(3) Performative function. The performative function of language isprimarily to change the social status of persons, as in marriage ceremonies,the sentencing of criminals, the blessing of children, the naming of a ship ata launching ceremony, and the cursing of enemies. The kind of language employedin performative verbal acts is usually quite formal and even ritualized. Theperformative function can extend to the control of reality as on some magicalor religious occasions. For example, in Chinese when someone breaks a bowl or aplate, the host or the people present are likely to say sui sui ping an (everyyear be safe and happy) as a means of controlling the forces which thebelievers feel might affect their lives.
(4) Emotive function. The emotive function is one of the mostpowerful uses of language because it is so crucial in changing the emotionalstatus of an audience for or against someone or something. It is a means ofgetting rid of the nervous energy when people are under stress, for example,swear words, obscenities, involuntary verbal reactions to beautiful art orscenery; conventional words/phrases, for example, God, My, Damn it, Wow, Ugh,Ow, etc.
(5) Phatic communion. The phatic communion refers to the socialinteraction of language. People always use some small, seemingly meaninglessexpressions such as Good morning, God bless you, Nice day, etc., to maintain acomfortable relationship between people without any factual content.
(6) Recreational function. The recreational function means peopleuse language for the sheer joy of using it, such as a baby’s babbling or achanter’s chanting.
(7) Metalingual function. The metalingual function refers to thefact that people can use language to talk about itself. For example, I can usethe word “book” to talk about a book, and I can also use the expression “theword book” to talk about the sign “b-o-o-k” itself.