



(1)语法和造句
任何一种语言,都有它的语法,但说那种语言的人,却不知道什么是语法。他们从牙牙学语的时候开始,就跟着人们这样说,从来没有注意到他说的话,是合乎语法的规则的。
有些研究语言现象的人,把那种语言中常用的表现方式归纳起来,编定一些通则,这便是所谓语法。但语言是自然发展而成的,没有人肯依照一些固定的规则去说话,他们随便说,只求能表现他们的意思也就满足了。编语法的人却要从这些漫无标准的语言当中,去找出它的标准来,所以只能求得一个大概的规则,而每条规则总是有例外的。
因此我们知道语法非将就语言不可,语言的发展是绝不管什么语法规则的。没有人肯削足适履,依照语法来说话,除非他是一个外国人。我们学一种外国语,因为不是从小自然养成的习惯,而要凭记忆和理解去学习,所以一定要先学语法,才有规则可循,才能类推心得。儿童的记忆力和模仿力都很强,学任何语言,或同时学几种语言,都用不着学语法。成人记忆力差了,但理解力却增加起来,所以学了语法,就可依据一条规则,而推论到其他的说法,自然比茫无头绪地去学习要便利得多了。
英文既不是我们的国语,我们中国人来学英文,也非学语法不可。我们在学语法之初,应当了解语法并无高初之别,只有繁简之分。初中学的语法,和大学学的语法,还是一种东西,不过愈学愈复杂而已。如果你对于简单的语法没有学通,又去学繁杂的语法,只有愈弄愈糊涂,永远学不好的。所以不问你是初中学生也好,大学学生也好,如果语法没有弄清楚的话,仍得从头学起。任何一个学英文的人,都得把基本的语法学通,才能深造,正像造房子一样,基础不固,随便你把房子造得多高,也会要倒的。
我主张语法愈简单愈好,不过无论它怎样简单,却要规模全备,所谓麻雀虽小,肝胆俱全,不可见树不见林,详其一端而略去其大体。要使初学语法的人,一眼就能看透整个的树林,而不是只见一花一木,去研究它的枝节问题。你总记得群盲摸象的故事吧,那些盲人,谁都没有看见整个的像是一个什么样子,所以各执一词,没有一个人知道真正的事实。我们学语法一定要从简单的入手,就是要使我们看到个整的象,知道语法到底是什么。
你把大概的英文语法学会了,你就知道普通造句的法则,你就可以简单地用英文表达你的意思,否则,你即令对某种词类研究很深,你还是不能正确地写出一个普通的句子来。
(2)语句的构成
关于语句的构成,可分形式和内容两方面来讲。现在先讲形式。我们知道任何一个词,都有它的意义,任何一个语句,都能表达一种思想,但为什么有些人写出来的文章,像天书一样,使我们看不懂它的意思呢?这就是因为不通的人,点金成铁,把那些分明有意义的字,胡乱地凑在一起,反而使它们失去了意义。正好像一群乌合之众不能成为军队一样,许多杂凑在一起的字,也绝不能成为语句。例如 hard boy the works 或 the hard boy works 或 boy the works hard 或 works boy the hard 等,都不是语句,一定要写成 the boy works hard 才行,而这样还不够完善,还得把第一个字母大写,在各词的最后加上一个句点,即“The boy works hard.(那男孩用功。)”才算是一个完善的语句。
由此看来,我们可以知道,一个完善的语句,一定是要把各词依照语法排列,加上必要的大写和标点,然后才可以成立的。你如果对这种形式加以忽视,而不注意词的排列,那么,你写出来的文章自然不通了。
在语句的构成上,比这种形式问题更为重要的,自然是它的内容了。内容就是说它所包含的要素。一个完整的语句,起码要具备一个主语(Subject)和一个谓语(Predicate),例如“Birds fly.(鸟飞)。”前者为主语,后者为谓语,虽则简单,却已成为一个完整的语句了。如上举的“The boy works hard.”也是一样,the boy 是主语,works hard 是谓语。这是第一种句型,其公式是“Subject + Predicate”。其次是有宾语(Object)的语句,例如,“He has a book.”。因用 have 这个及物动词,一定要接上一个宾语,才能完成意义,你单说“他有”,听者便将产生疑问:他有什么呢?所以必须说出他有的东西来,才算是表达出一个完全的思想来了。这是第二种句型,其公式是“Subject + Predicate + Object”。有时在不及物动词后面,也接上一个词,但不是宾语,因不及物动词是不能有宾语的。比方说,“I am a boy.”。句中的 boy,并不是宾语,而是补语(Complement)。补语一定要和主语一致,如上句 I 就是 boy,boy 就是 I;而宾语和主语,则必然是两件事。宾语一定要是名词,而补语便不一定要是名词,有时形容词也可以,如“The flower is beautiful.”,便是用形容词做补语的。这是第三种句型,其公式是“Subject + Predicate + Complement”,我们又可以把宾语和补语,同时用在一句中,例如“We made him happy.”。句中的 we 是主语,made 是谓语,him 是宾语,happy 是补语。这是第四种句型,其公式是“Subject + Predicate + Object + Complement”。
构成英文语句的要素,不外是上述的“主语”“谓语”“宾语”和“补语”四种字眼,其他都无关重要,只是用作修饰而已。所以我们对于其他那些无关紧要的字,就叫作修饰语(Modifier)。语句中成为要素的字眼,就好像房子的干架,成为修饰语的字眼,就好像房子的装饰;没有干架房子便建不起来,更无从加以装饰了。正像房子的建成全在干架一样,语句的构成也非有那些要素不可。
(3)语句的成分
在上讲“语句的构成”中我们所讲的,是构成语句的一些要素,即所谓主语、谓语、宾语和补语。在本讲中,就打算讲构成那些要素的成分,即单词(Word)、短语(Phrase)和分句(Clause)。一个主语不一定是一个单词,它也可以是一个短语,也可以是一个分句。任何一个主语,都应该是一个名词,不过有时我们可以不用名词而用别的词来代替它,例如用代词,用不定词,用短语,或用分句都可以。这些代替来用的词,我们可统称之为相当语(Equivalents)。
凡有意义的一个字母(letter),或两个字母以上结合而成的文字,就叫作单词。英文的单词,依其词性可分为八大词类(Eight Parts of Speech),即所谓名词(Noun)、代词(Pronoun)、动词(Verb)、形容词(Adjective)、副词(Adverb)、介词(Preposition)、连词(Conjunction)、感叹词(Interjection)。
两个以上的单词组合而成的短辞,就叫作短语。一个短语中是不包含主语和谓语的,但它却有一定的意义。依照它的作用,我们可以把短语分为四类:①名词短语(Noun Phrase),②形容词短语(Adjective Phrase),③副词短语(Adverb Phrase),④其他短语。现就以上四类,分别举例说明如下:
名词短语: To tell a lie is wrong.(撒谎是不对的。)
Now I must decide what to do .(现在我必须决定怎么办。)
例句中 to tell a lie 是 is 的主语,what to do 是 decide 的宾语,凡主语和宾语都是要用名词的,所以这是名词短语。
形容词短语:He is a man of courage .(他是一个勇者。)
A man without courage is a knife without an edge .(人而无勇犹刀之无锋。)
Be always in time ;too late is a crime.(要常守时;迟误为罪。)
所谓 man of courage = courageous man,可见都是用来修饰 man 的;without courage 也是修饰 man 的,without an edge 就是修饰 knife 的;in time 是 be 的补足语,也是当作形容词用的,所以以上都是形容词短语。
副词短语:He studies with diligence .(他勤读。)
I was born in this town .(我生在此城。)
There is a book on the desk .(桌上有一本书。)
例句中的 with diligence、in this town 和 on the desk,都是副词短语,第一个短语是修饰动词 studies,第二个短语是修饰动词 was born,第三个短语是修饰动词 is 的。
其他短语:
1. 动词短语(Verb-phrase),如:a. Take good care of yourself.(好生保养。)b. He did not take part in the meeting.(他未曾参加那会。)
2. 介词短语(Prepositional-phrase),如:a. He is cheerful in spite of illness .(他不顾生病还是很快活。)b. He was obliged to leave the office on account of ill health.(他因病不得不停止办公。)
3. 连词短语(Conjunction-phrase),如:a. I shall lend you the book as soon as I have done with it.(等我读完了这本书,我就借给你。)b. Any will do, so long as it is interesting.(只要是有趣味的什么都可以。)
4. 感叹词短语(Interjection-phrase),如:a. You are not going to pay the money? For shame !(你不付钱吗?真不要脸!)b. Come now ,don’t joke.(喂,喂,不要开玩笑。)
语句中的小语句,就叫作分句。每个分句都是有一个主语和一个谓语的。分句可分为①名词分句(Noun Clause),②形容词分句(Adjective Clause),③副词分句(Adverb Clause)三种。现分别举例说明如下:
名词分句: What he says is true.(他所说的是真的。)
He asked me where I was going .(他问我往何处去。)
例句中的 what he says 是动词 is 的主语;where I was going 是动词 asked 的宾语,所以都是名词分句。
形容词分句:This is the house where he lives .(这就是他住的屋子。)
Students who are diligent are sure to succeed.(勤勉的学生一定会成功的。)
例句中的 where he lives 是修饰 house 的,而 who are diligent 是修饰 students 的,所以都是形容词分句。
副词分句:I did as he told me .(我照他说的做了。)
Look before you leap .(看好再跳。)
例句中的 as he told me 是修饰动词 did 的,before you leap 是修饰动词 look 的,所以都是副词分句。
(4)语句的扩大
照第二讲所述,语句的构成有四种句式,最简单的就是“主语 + 谓语”,例如 Birds sing. 但英文中毕竟很少见到这样简单的句子。为什么少呢?因为句式尽管简单得只有一个主语和一个谓语,但文字绝不限于两个字。我们可以在那主语和谓语上,加添许多修饰语(Modifier),那句子自然就变长了。例如上举的“Birds sing.”这个句子,我们就可以说“Little birds sing sweetly”,又可以说“The little birds in my garden sing sweetly every morning”,诸如此类,尽可以拉长,但在句式上看来,它还是“主语 + 谓语”的一个简单句子。
一个句子比方作人体的话,其中的主语就是人体的头。这头上可以插花,可以戴帽,可以御眼镜,可以戴耳环,这些装饰在头上的东西,就通称为装饰品,在句子的主语上,就叫作修饰语。修饰语是限定那个主语等的意义的,可大别为名词修饰语和动词修饰语两类。名词修饰语是形容词,而动词修饰语就是副词。修饰语放在那主词的前面或是后面的时候,就称为附加的用法(Attributive Use),作为动词的补足语时,就叫作叙述的用法(Predicative Use)。现在分别举例说明一下。
Ⅰ. 形容词的“附加的用法”和“叙述的用法”:
(a)附加的用法:A heavy shower fell today.
I see something white in the distance.
(b)叙述的用法:This rose smells sweet .
Happy is the man who is contented.
Ⅱ. 副词的“附加的用法”和“叙述的用法”:
(a)附加的用法:I missed the last up train last night.
I met him on my way back .
(b)叙述的用法:The stars are out .
Off the train goes.
形容词的修饰语用来修饰主语,而副词的修饰语就用来修饰谓语。主要的主语修饰语(Subject Modifier),有下列四种:
①A national flag is the symbol of a country.(以 Adjective 为修饰语。)
②The best way to learn English is learning by heart.(以 Adjective Infinitive 为修饰语。)
③The book on the desk is not mine.(以 Adjective Phrase 为修饰语。)
④The house which he lives in is at the top of the hill.(以 Adjective Clause 为修饰语。)
句中的宾语和补语,如果是名词的话,也同样地可以加上述的四种修饰语,例如:
I know the best way to learn English.(宾语修饰语。)
This is the best way to learn English.(补语修饰语。)
主语修饰语除上述的以外,还可以用同位语(Appositive),例如:
My friend, Wang ,is very honest.(同位单词。)
Chang, the moniter of our class ,is a star football player.(同位短语。)
My wish, that she would come to the party ,was gratified.(同位分句。)
主要的谓语修饰语(Predicate Modifier),同样地也有四种,即:
①He speaks English fluently .(以 Adverb 为修饰语。)
②He goes to see his mother.(以 Adverb Infinitive 为修饰语。)
③I usually study in my study .(以 Adverb Phrase 为修饰语。)
④I will wait till he comes .(以 Adverb Clause 为修饰语。)
在副词上还可以再加副词短语来修饰,以补充其意义,而扩大其语句。例如“He is out in the garden . ”。
(5)语句的种类
关于英文语句的分类,我们可以从构造上和从机能上两方面来看。由构造上,即依句法(Sentence Structure)来看,语句的种类有三:即单句、复句和并列句。由机能上,即依叙述的方式来看,语句可大别为四:即陈述句、疑问句、祈使句和感叹句。
Ⅰ. 构造上语句的分类
1. 单句(Simple Sentence)
只包含一个 Subject Word(主语)和一个 Predicate Verb(谓语)的 Sentence(语句),就叫作单句。例如:
I like an honest man.(我喜欢诚实的人。)
These flowers bloom all the year round.(这些花一年到头都开的。)
2. 复句(Complex Sentence)
凡包含一个主句(Main Clause)和一个或几个从句(Subordinate Clause)的语句,就叫作复句。例如:
I know that he is honest .(我知道他是诚实的。)
The man who came yesterday was my uncle.(昨天来的那人是我的叔父。)
Though he went to the movies ,I stayed at home.(他去看电影,我却留在家里。)
在上举的三个例句中用黑体字印的,全是从句。每个从句中也有其独自的主语和谓语,如果把它的引导用的关系词,即是 that、who、though 等拿掉,而让它脱离主句,它就成为一个单句了。
3. 并列句(Compound Sentence)
由并列连词(Coordinate Conjunction)连接的两个或两个以上的独立分句所构成的语句,就叫作并列句,例如:
This is black and that is white.(此黑彼白。)
He went to the movies, but I stayed at home.(他去看电影但我留在家里。)
Neither my brother nor I know French.(我弟弟和我都不懂法文。)
并列句如主语相同时,可将第二个独立分句中的主语,乃至谓语省略:
He speaks well,but(he)writes badly.
He is poor but(he is)honest.
Ⅱ. 机能上语句的分类
1. 陈述句(Declarative Sentence)
把事物平铺直叙地说出来的,就叫陈述句。句尾的标点要用句号(Period)。
He works hard.(他很用功。)
I do not want it.(我不要这个。)
在否定句中,除用动词 be(即 is、am、are 等)及 have 可直接接否定词的 not 外,其余的动词都得加上一个 do(或 does、did)再接否定词的 not,并且要放在那动词的前面,如上举的第二例。
2. 疑问句(Interrogative Sentence)
凡问什么的语句,就叫作疑问句。疑问句有两种,一是要回答 Yes 或 No 的;一是用疑问词开始而不要回答 Yes 或 No 的。句尾的标点要用问号(Interrogation Mark),例如:
Do you want a pen?(你要笔吗?答:Yes,I want one.)
What do you want?(你要什么?答:I want a pen.)
疑问句除加用助动词(如 do、will 等),和以疑问词作主语用(如“Who came to see you yesterday?”“Which is taller,you or your brother?”“How many boys failed in the examination?”)外,普遍都要将谓语置于主语之前,例如“Is he a good boy?”。
3. 祈使句(Imperative Sentence)
用动词的原形(Root)而省去主语,以表示命令、请求、禁止等的,就叫作祈使句。句尾用句号,要加强意味时,则用感叹号(Exclamation Mark),例如:
Be quiet!(不要闹!)
Do not read novels all day long.(不要一天到晚读小说。)
在祈使句的前后,有时可加用呼唤的人名,如“Tom,work hard.(汤姆,要用功呀。)”。又,对第一人称和第三人称的祈使就用 let 一字开始,如“Let me bear this in mind.(让我把这个记在心上。)”“Let young men bear this in mind.(让青年们把这个记在心上。)”。普通对第二人称的祈使句则为“Young men,bear this in mind.(青年人,把这个记在心上吧。)”。
4. 感叹句(Exclamatory Sentence)
常用副词的 how 或形容词的 what(后加不定冠词)开始,而表示感叹的,就叫作感叹句。句尾用感叹号,例如:
How kind he is!(他多么亲切呀。)
How the stars twinkles!(星何其摇闪。)
What a kind man he is!(他是一个何等亲切的人。)
感叹句有时可将主语和不及物动词省略,不必说“What a fool he is!”,单说“What a fool!”也行了。
(6)语句的解剖
依照前面所说的,所有的语句,从构造上看来,可分为三类,即单句、复句和并列句。我们现在不妨再进一步,将这三种句子来解剖一下,便可更加明白它们的构造和内容了。
Ⅰ. 单句的解剖
现试举出三句形式不同的单句,作为解剖的实例。
1. You will succeed by diligence.
2. It is not right to tell a lie.
3. Do not tell him such a foolish story.
单句是只有一个 Subject 和一个 Predicate 的,所以我们现在就得把句中的这两种要素找出来。第一句一见而知主语是 you,谓语是 succeed。第二句的主语是 it,不过它是代表后面的 to tell a lie 的,所以这两个都要视为主语。第三句字面上没有主语,因为祈使句多半是将主语的 you 略去了的,所以我们在解剖时应该补上,句子的构造才可显明地看得出来。
现再详细列表说明如下:
Ⅱ. 复句的解剖
现试举出二句形式不同的复句,作为解剖的实例。
1. When I was a boy at school,I was often very idle.
2. My parents did not know that I seldom attended school.
复句包含一个主句(Principal Clause)和一个或几个从句(Dependent Clause),而这种从句,可能有三种,即副词从句(Adverb Clause)、形容词从句(Adjective Clause)和名词从句(Noun Clause)。上例第一句中的“When I was a boy at school”就是一个副词从句,因为它是形容动词 was 的。第二句中的“that I seldom attended school”,就是一个名词从句,因为它是 know 的宾语。
现用表解说明如下:
Ⅲ. 并列句的解剖
现试举出两句形式不同的并列句,作为解剖的实例。
1. The crow took a pebble and dropped it into the pitcher.
2. All men are mortal;all kings are men;therefore all kings are mortal.
并列句是由两个以上的同等分句所构成的,有时那些分句因为同一主语,所以可以将后面的主语略去,如谓语也相同时,也同样可以省略。上例第一句中第二个从句中 dropped 的主语也是 the crow,所以略去了。
现用表解说明如下:
(7)语句的合成
读过“语句的种类”之后,我们已经知道了语句可分为单句、复句和并列句三种。单句是语句的基础,在任何一种句型中,至少都非包含一个单句不可。只有极短的句子,才是一个单句所构成的,稍长的句子,不问它是单句也好,复句也好,并列句也好,多半包含两个以上的单句。所以两个单句,可合成一个单句,也可合成一个复句,也可合成一个并列句。复句和并列句都得包含两个分句,单句就只可有一个分句。在一个分句所构成的单句上,再加短语,并不影响句型,所以合拼两个单句为一句的时候,有三种不同的方式。也可以说,因造句的方式不同,而发生三种不同的结果。兹分别举例说明如下:
1. 两个单句合成一个单句
把其中一个不大重要的单句,改为短语,附在另外一较为重要的单句上,便合成一个单句了,例如:
= Turning to the right,you will find the post office on your left.
(向右转走去,你就会看见邮政局在你的左边呢。)
= In spite of all his labours,he is still poor.(尽管他非常努力,他还是很穷。)
= He has a large family to provide for.(他有一个大家庭要赡养。)
2. 两个单句合成一个复句
把其中一个不大重要的单句,改为从句(名词从句、形容词从句或副词从句皆可),附在另外一个较为重要的单句上,便合成一个复句了,例如:
A. 用名词从句的
= I am sure that he will come again.(我确信他会再来。)
= I asked him if he will come here again.(我问他是不是还要再到这里来。)
= He does not know where I am going.(他不知道我要到什么地方去。)
B. 用形容词从句的
= The canary which I caught in our garden sings sweetly.
(我在花园里捉来的那只金丝雀歌声很美。)
= This is the house where he lives.(他就住在这所房子里。)
= The good education that he had received,raised him above many men of his age.
(他受了很好的教育,所以使他比同年辈的人的地位都高。)
C. 用副词从句的
= Though he is very rich,he is never happy.(他虽则很有钱,但他从来不快乐。)
= He is more diligent than any other boy in the class.(他是同班中最勤励的。)
= Every one raised a shout as soon as the signal was given.
(信号一发,所有的人都大声地喊出来。)
3. 两个单句合成一个并列句
把两个单句用连词把它们结合起来,便成为一个并列句了,例如:
= It was getting late,and so I will go home.(时间很迟了,所以我要回家了。)
= I did not go out,but stayed at home.(我没有出去,而留在家里。)
= Not only energy,but patience is also necessary to success in life.
(人生的成功,不仅需要精力,而且需要耐性。)
(8)语句的变换
语句在构造上有单句、复句和并列句之分,不过这些不同的句式,完全是属于语法上的,与意义无关。同一种意义,可以用好几种句式表示出来,说明尽管不同,意思可以不变。为求彻底明了这三种句式的构成起见,我们不妨试将句式变换,例如将复句改为单句,将并列句改为单句,或将复句改为并列句。对于语句的各种构造运用自如之后,写作时就不会有何困难了。
1. 由复句改成单句
A. 将名词从句换用其他单词或短语的
B. 将形容词从句换用其他单词或短语的
C. 将副词从句换用其他单词或短语的
2. 由并列句改成单句
A. 用 Participle 的
B. 用 Preposition 的
C. 用 Infinitive 的
3. 由复句改成并列句
(9)额外的因素
我们在第二讲“语句的构成”中,已将一个语句应具备的要素说过了。那即是说,“主语”和“谓语”是最基本的要素,其次是“宾语”和“补语”,此外则为“修饰语”。但无论是要素也好,修饰语也好,在语法上都是互相关联的。唯有一种独立的因素,有时可以和句中其他的词,没有语法上的关联,只有意义上的联系。这原是语句的要素之外的因素,这种因素我们在英文中也可以找出四种不同的形式来,一为“独立的因素”,二为“同位的词句”,三为“呼唤格”,四为“填补语”。现分别举例说明如下:
1. 独立的因素
独立的因素是和句中其他的部分没有语法上任何关系的单词,或短语,或从句,这种因素又称括弧的字句,通常是用标点符号隔开的。
A. 独立的单词
Hurrah !I have passed my examination.(好呀!我考取了。)
Oh !We arrived at last.(啊!我们终于到了。)
This, however ,is not what I asked for.(虽然,这并不是我所要的。)
Besides ,I can’t walk that far.(而且,我走不得那么远。)
B. 独立的短语
In any case ,you are not at fault.(无论如何你都不错。)
The climate of Taiwan, generally speaking ,is very good.(一般地说来,台湾的气候很好。)
Between you and me ,I think him a fool.(我们私下说一句,我想他是一个智力障碍者。)
After all ,it wasn’t your fault.(毕竟,这不是你的过错。)
C. 独立的从句
You will, I suppose ,do as you want to.(我想你可以为所欲为。)
You are entirely right, I must admit .(你是完全对的,我必得承认。)
Bob will, I fear ,fail in this contest.(在这竞赛中,我恐怕鲍勃会失败。)
You have, I agree ,a good alibi.(我同意你不在场。)
2. 同位的词句
同位的词句是一个名词,置于其他名词或代词后,来描写或说明它的。这种同位的词句,一定要用逗号来和句中其他的部分隔开。
A. 同位的单词
My friend, John ,is very loyal.(我的朋友约翰很忠实。)
B. 同位的短语
Bob Jones, the president of our class ,is a star football player.(我们的班长琼斯是足球选手。)
C. 同位的从句
My wish, that she would come to the party ,was gratified.(我望她到会,已如愿以偿。)
3. 呼唤格
对于人、地或物,都可加用呼唤的字眼,这可能是名词也可能是代词,但都是独立的。普通用得很多的是对人的呼唤,尤其是在省略主语的句中:
Mary ,(you)come here right now.(玛丽,快到这里来。)
Here, Dad ,are your slippers.(爹爹,这是你的拖鞋。)
Well, folks ,(you)step right up.(好呀,朋友,你们站起来吧。)
Do you know, Martin ,why I come here?(马丁,你知道我为什么到这里来吗?)
Listen, girls ,to what I say.(女孩子们,听我说呀。)
4. 填补语
填补语是用来引出那真正的主语的,这时的主语是在谓语之后。填补语有两种,即 it 和 there。
It is easy to swim in salt water.(在盐水中游泳是容易的。)
(注)这个 it 是代表 to swim 以下的字句。即“To swim in salt water is easy.”。可知真正的主语是 to swim 以下的字句,而不是 it,因为把主语倒装在后,所以在前面主语的地位空了,应有一个词来填补。
There are ten books on the table.(在桌上有十本书。)
(注)这个 there 就是一个填补词,真正的主语是 books 而不是 there。这个句子正常的排列法是“Ten books are on the table. ”。
(10)单词和词性
依照单词在它句中所担负的职责,我们就可以决定那个单词的词性,因而得以把所有的词分成八类,即所谓八大词类(Eight Parts of Speech)。
八大词类包括名词(Noun)、代词(Pronoun)、形容词(Adjective)、动词(Verb)、副词(Adverb)、介词(Preposition)、连词(Conjunction)和感叹词(Interjection)。
名词 主要是用作①主语:“A dog is a faithful animal.(狗是忠实的动物。)”。②宾语:“I keep a very faithful dog .(我养了一条很忠实的狗。)”。③补语:“Blackie is a faithful dog .(小黑是一条忠实的狗。)”。
代词 是用来代替名词的。例如:“The girl has a pretty doll. She likes it very much.(那女孩有一只漂亮的洋囡囡,她很喜欢它。)”。
形容词 是用来修饰名词的。例如:“ The pink rose is a beautiful flower.(红玫瑰是美丽的花。)”。句中的 the 和 a 这种形容词,又称为冠词(Article)。
动词 是表示主语的动作,或其所在的地位或状态的。①动作:“He walked to school.(他走到学校去了。)”。②地位:“I am in the garden.(我在园中。)”。状态:“She felt much better.(她觉得好多了。)”。另外有一种助动词(Auxiliary Verb),是不能单独成立,而要和主动词连用的,例如:“You may stand up.(你可以站起来。)”“They have left the room.(他们已经离开这房间了。)”。助动词有 can、be、do、have、shall、will、may、must、ought 等词,有时 dare、need、let 也可作助动词用。助动词大部分后面接省去“to”的不定词(如 can go ; shall come ),但也有接不省去“to”的不定词(如 ought to go ),有的后接过去或现在分词(如“Babylon is fallen . He is building a house.”),有的接过去分词(如“I have written a letter.”)。
副词 是用来修饰动词、形容词,或别的副词的。例如:“The boy works hard .(那孩子很用功。)”“He is very careful.(他很谨慎。)”“You walk too quickly.(你走得太快。)”。
介词 是用来和名词或代词组合起来而作成副词或形容词用的。例如:①作副词用的:“I put the book on the desk .(我把那书放在桌上。)”。②作形容词用的:“A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush .(多得不如现得。)”。
连词 是用来连接单词或词句的。例如:“Tom and John are hardworking, but their sister is not.(汤姆、约翰两兄弟都很用功,但是他们的妹妹则否。)”“I know that he will come.(我知道他会来。)”“I will wait till he comes.(我要等他来。)”。
感叹词 是单为表白感情的,例如,“ Alas !He is dead!(哎唷!他死了!)”“ Ouch !My hand is hurt.(哦呀!我的手受伤了。)”“ Hurrah !The Japanese have surrendered.(好呀!日本投降了。)”。
同一词因在句中的地位不同,而词性亦异。现举几例说明如下:
He ran fast .(副词)
It was a fast race.(形容词)
My fast will begin today.(名词)
I shall fast when Lent opens.(动词)
Wrong seldom prospers.(名词)
You have taken the wrong road.(形容词)
He often spells words wrong .(副词)
You wrong me by your suspicions.(动词)
What did you say?(代词)
What (= partly)with one thing and what with another.(副词)
I do not doubt but what (= that)you are right.(连词)
What !Have you no better reason than this?(感叹词)
I am waiting for the train.(介词)
You have plenty of time, for the train is late.(连词)
He trembled as he spoke.(连词)
I can do it as well.(副词)
You are wrong as (= which)was to be expected.(代词)
Some animals, as the fox and the squirrel,have bushy tails.(介词)
I will not accept either proposal.(形容词)
Either the cat or the dog is a thief.(连词)
If you do not stay,I will not stay either .(副词)
(11)名词和冠词
1. 名词(Noun)的种类
名词可分五种,计有形的四种(共同名词、固有名词、物质名词、集合名词),无形的一种(抽象名词)。
A room without pictures is like a room without windows . 没有画的房间就好像没有窗的房间一样。(句中黑体字都是共同名词。)
The Victory was the flagship of Nelson . 胜利号是纳尔逊的旗舰。(句中黑体字都是固有名词。)
Gold is a precious metal. 黄金是一种贵金属。(句中的黑体字是物质名词。)
He has a large family to support. 他有一个大家庭要赡养。(句中的黑体字是集合名词。)
Industry is essential to success . 勤励是成功所不可缺少的。(句中的黑体字都是抽象名词。)
2. 名词的数(Number)
名词有单数(Singular Number)和复数(Plural Number)两种。在上举五大类名词中,只有共同名词才能变成复数。集合名词形单义复,如再加成复数,就和共同名词的用法无异。其他三种名词变成复数时,也同样地要变成共同名词。
复数的做法一般是在单数名词上加一个 s 或 es,但也有加 en 等,或以变更元音来表示的。
3. 名词的性(Gender)
名词分男性(Masculine Gender)、女性(Feminine Gender)、通性(Common Gender)和中性(Neuter Gender)四种不同的性别。
男性:father、man、lion、cock
女性:mother、woman、lioness、hen
通性:parent、child、animal、person、bird
中性:house、table、pencil、book、tree
4. 名词的格(Case)
名词的格有主格(Nominative Case)、宾格(Objective Case)及所有格(Possessive Case)三种。
That man has a dog. 那人有一只狗。(主格)
I know that man . 我认识那人。(宾格)
This is that man’s dog. 这便是那人的狗。(所有格)
“属性”可用于①所有者,如 my brother’s hat;②著者,或发明发现者,如 Dickens’ novels、Marconi’s wireless telegraph;③目的物,如 a girls’high school、a children’s hospital;④行为者,如 father’s death、brother’s speech;⑤接受行为者,如 Julius Caesar’s assassination、“No one came to my father’s rescue.”。
5. 冠词(Article)
冠词分定冠词(Definite Article)和不定冠词(Indefinite Article)两种。不定冠词是 a 和 an,定冠词是 the。
A.“a”“an”的用法
①用于 one 的意义时:He came here a week ago.
②用于 a certain 的意义时: A Mr. Lee came to see you.
③用于 any 的意义时: A horse is a useful animal.
④用于 per 的意义时:The postman calls twice a day.
⑤用于 the same 的意义时:Birds of a feather flock together.
⑥用于固有名词前有“像……那样的人或地”的意义时: A Newton cannot become a Shakespeare at will.(a Newton = a great scientist like Newton;a Shakespeare = a great dramatist like Shakespeare)
在辅音前用 a,在元音前用 an,但以发音为准,如 an hour、a useful thing、a one-eyed man、an M. P.。
B.“the”的用法
①再提到前所说过的名词时:I met a gentleman and a girl in the park. I thought the gentleman must be the father of the girl.
②虽为第一次出现的名词,但所指的东西很明显时:Shut the door please. He is the principal of our school.
③在代表某一种类的名词前: The horse is a useful animal.
④由于修饰语而得确定那名词何所指时:I remember the time we first met.
⑤在独一无二的东西前: The earth moves round the sun.
⑥加在普通名词前造成抽象名词: The pen(= the power of a pen)is mightier than the sword(= the power of a sword).
⑦在如下的短语中:in the morning、in the sun、in the right、in the country、by the hour、by the pound、etc
⑧在特殊的固有名词前: the Thames、 the Pacific、 the Empress of Japan(江河、海洋、舰艇); the University of Taiwan、 the Foreign Office、 the Grand Hotel(公共建筑物); the Times、 the Pacific English Fortnightly、 the Year Book(书报杂志); the Alps、 the Philippines(山脉、群岛); the United States of America(复数国名); the Americans(复数国民); the Browns(复数家族)
(12)补语的用法
我们在第二讲“语句的构成”中,已经略为说到了补语,尤其是补语和宾语不同的地方,在及物动词后,必然要接一个宾语,这是很容易了解的,如果补语只用在不及物动词后也就容易了,但及物动词后有时也接补语,所以就不免使人感到混乱。现在特将补语的用法,专题来讲一下。
在讲动词之前,来讲补语的用法似乎有点不大方便,因为补语是和动词有连带关系的。不过我们只要注意地看看下例句中不同的地方,也就不难了解了。
(A)He is rich .(主语 + 不及物动词 + 补语)
(B)They elected him mayor .(主语 + 及物动词 + 宾语 + 补语)
用在不及物动词后面的补语,是说明主语的;用在及物动词后面的补语,是说明宾语的。可见用在及物动词后的补语,绝不会与宾语混乱。所谓补语,是用来修饰主语或宾语的,以补足那动词的叙述不完全的地方。无论不及物动词也好及物动词也好,需要加补语的,都是不完全的。称为“不完全不及物动词”及“不完全及物动词”。
用在不完全不及物动词后的,是主语补语(Subjective Complement);而用在不完全及物动词后的,是宾语补语(Objective Complement)。现再分别举例讲解一下。
1. 主语补语
(1)Custom is almost a second nature. 习惯为第二天性。
(2)A good medicine tastes bitter. 良药苦口。
在(1)中的 nature 和在(2)中的 bitter,是修饰主语 custom 和 medicine 的,同时又是补足不及物动词 is 和 tastes 的不完全的意思的,所以这个名词的 nature 和形容词的 bitter,都是补语。这种补语,即是修饰主语的,所以就叫主语补语。通常应加主语补语的不及物动词,有:be、taste、look、smell、sound、feel、sit、grow、get、fall、come、become、prove、turn 等。现各举一例如下:
He looks very pale. 他面色苍白。
This flower smells good. 此花甚香。
That explanation sounds true. 那说明听上去属实。
I feel ill this morning. 今晨我不舒服。
The food sits heavy on my stomach. 食物停滞在我胃中。
The tree grew taller and taller. 这树愈长愈高了。
He has got rich. 他阔了。
He fell sick. 他病了。
His prediction has come true. 他不幸而言中。
He has now become a rich merchant. 他现在变成一个阔商人。
The rumor proved true. 那谣言是真的。
My hair has turned gray. 我的头发白了。
2. 宾语补语
(1)People call him the father of the radio. 人们称他为无线电之父。
(2)Learning makes a good man better,and a bad man worse. 学问使好人更好,使坏人更坏。
在(1)中的 father 和(2)中的 better、worse 是修饰宾语 him 和 man 的,同时又是补足及物动词 call 和 makes 的不完全的意思的,所以这名词 father 和形容词 better、worse,都是补语。这种补语,既是修饰宾语的,所以就叫宾语补语。通常应加宾语补语的及物动词有:call、make、find、think、consider、elect、appoint、believe、imagine 等,这些动词又称使役动词(Factitive Verb)。
I find the book very useful. 我觉得这本书很有用。
Don’t think a country walk a waste of time. 不要以为到乡下散步是浪费时间。
I consider him worthy of confidence. 我认为他很值得信任。
They elected him president. 他们选他为社长。
He appointed him secretary. 他委他为秘书。
The jury believed him innocent. 法官们相信他无罪。
I imagined him safe. 我猜想他平安无事。
3. 补语的位置
(1)主语 + 不及物动词 + 补语
Brevity is the soul of wit. 要言不烦。(格言)
(2)主语 + 及物动词 + 宾语 + 补语
Great wealth makes us neither more wise nor more healthy.
财富既不能使我们更聪明,也不能使我们更健康。(格言)
(3)补语 + 动词 + 主语
What are the general foundations of our belief?什么是我们信仰的一般的根据?(补语为疑问代词时)
How is she today?她今天怎样?(补语为疑问副词时)
Happy indeed is he who has a sound mind in a sound body.(= He who...is indeed happy.)
有健全心身的人实在是幸福的。(补语用于加强语气时)
Wide is the gate and broad is the way that leads to destruction.
到毁灭的门广开,到毁灭的路宽敞。(补语用于加强语气时)
4. 补语和副词
(A)I found the book easy.
(B)I found the book easily.
英语的动词,不论是及物动词或不及物动词,常有几种不同的含义,而影响后面或接补语或接副词。上例中的 find 一个及物动词,也有二义;一为“找到”(get or discover something as the result of search),一为“(由经验而)知觉”(learn or become informed of something by experience)。上举(A)例为后者之义,(B)为前者之义,即:
(A)我觉得那本书容易读。
(B)我很容易就找到了那本书。
我们如果把(A)句中的 easy 去掉,即成为“I found the book.(我找到了那本书。)”的意思,所以要使这个动词 find 发生“(由经验而)知觉”的意思,就非补上 easy 一词不可。所以这个 easy 便是补足 find 的不完全的意思的补语。
至于(B)例中的 find 作“找到”解时,意思已经完全了,不用再加什么补语,要加只能加上一个修饰的副词,如例中的 easily。所以这个 easily 一词要或不要,都无关系,因为根本不会影响动词 find 的意义的。
以上是及物动词,现在再举一个不及物动词的例。
(C)He remained silent.
(D)He remained long.
英文的不及物动词 remain 一词,也有两种用法:一是用作普通的不及物动词,意为“停留在原来的地位或情形当中”(stay in the same place or condition);一是用作连接动词(Linking Verb)。意为“继续是”“仍系”(continue to be),用作连接动词时,意思不完全,必得加一补语,这和普通不及物动词可以自立不同。
(C)他一直是没有作声。
(D)他停留了很久。
在(C)句中的 remain,既作“继续是”解,自然非有一个补语,意思就不完全,所以主格补语 silent,正是补足不及物动词 remain 的意义的。在(D)句中的 remain 便是“停留”的意思,说某人停留了,已经是一句完整的句子,用不着要加补语,一定要加也只能加副词。现就此动词再各举两例句如下:
He remained unmarried(= single). 他一直没有结婚。
The exhibition will remain open till the end of the month. 展览会一直要开到月底。
One incident remains very vividly in my mind. 那事情历历在目(很生动地停留在我心中)。
The good will not long remain lonely. 德不孤,必有邻。
(13)代词概要
英语中用代词的地方很多,我们说中国话所不要用的,他们都非加上不可,例如:“我今天是在哥哥家里吃早饭”一句话,说成英语时,在“哥哥”及“早饭”前都非加上代词所有格的 my 不可,即“I took my breakfast at my brother’s. ”。又,“我决心这样做”,也要说,“我决定我的心这样做”,即“I made up my mind to do this. ”。
1. 代词的种类
物主代词(Possessive Pronoun)和反身代词(Reflexive Pronoun)是属于人称代词的项下的,至于指示代词有时又叫作形容词性代词(Adjective Pronoun)。
现将上述四种代词各举一例如下:
① You look for hot water under the ice. 缘木求鱼。(句中的 you 为人称代词。)
② One must form one’s good habits when young. 一个人一定要在年轻时养成良好的习惯。(句中的 one 和 one’s 为指示代词。)
③ Which is the shortest way?最近的是哪一条路?(句中的 which 为疑问代词。)
④The man whom I met just now is Dr. Jones. 我刚才遇见的那人是琼斯博士。(句中的 whom 为关系代词。)
2. 代词和先行词
一个代词在人称、性、数上面,一定要和它的先行词一致,例如:
The boy lost his book. 那孩子把他的书失掉了。(句中的 his 是代表 the boy 的,所以是男性第三人称单数。)
Tom and Jack did their best. 汤姆和杰克尽了他们的力量。(句中的 their 是代表 Tom and Jack 的,所以是男性第三人称复数。)
Each of the girls has her bicycle. 每个女孩子都有她的单车。(句中的 her 是女性第三人称单数,与先行的 each of the girls 一致。)
Everybody brought his lunch. 人人都带了便当。(everybody 中虽包括女性,但英文中就没有一个兼具男女两性的单数所有格的词,所以只好以男性的 his 代表,正如以 man 代表人类一样。)
One never gets into trouble when one minds one’s own business. 少管闲事,绝无麻烦。(在主语为 one 时,后面要接 one’s,但主语为限定的 one 时,后面才接 his,例如:“One of the girls lost her book. ”“Every one of us gave his all to the cause. ”“No one may use his books for the test.”。)
3. 不定代词
如前一节所说的,代词都需要有先行词,才可以前后取得一致。但也有不需要先行词的代词,那就是不定代词(Indefinite Pronoun),或称为无人称代词(Impersonal Pronoun)。因为它不是固定地指某个人或某些人,而只是当作无固定人称来用的,所以有漠然不定的意味。
这种不定代词,本是属于人称代词的,但因其并不固定指某人,所以特别提出来,在此先加以叙述,不列入人称代词项下。
用于这种不定代词的有 we、you、they 三字,统作 people in general 解,即指一般的人。兹举例说明如下:
①What must we do on such occasion?在那种情形下要怎样办才好?
② You do not like to be told the same thing over and over again. 谁也不愿听人说同样的话。
③ They sell dear at that shop. 那店东西卖得贵。
(14)人称代词
人称代词(Personal Pronoun)有所谓人称(Person)、格(Case)、数(Number)、性(Gender)四点变化。人称有第一人称、第二人称、第三人称的区别;格有主格、宾格、所有格三种;数有单数及复数;性有男性、女性、通性和中性,现列表如下:
关于代词的所有格(Possessive Case),如上表中所示有 my、our、their 等词,例如:“I made up my mind to stop their coming. ”句中的 my、their 皆是。
代词的所有格是形容词而物主代词(Possessive Pronoun)才是将名词合并在所有格中的用法,例如:“This watch is mine (= my watch). ”“Your socks are black,but mine (= my socks)are white. ”。这种物主代词,只有第三人称,是单数复数同形的,现列表如下:
此外又有所谓复合人称代词(Compound Personal Pronoun),又称反身代词(Reflexive Pronoun),其人称、数、格的变化如下表:
反身代词主要有两种用法,即①反身的用法和②加强的用法,现分别例解如下:
①反身的用法
这是用作动词的宾语的。主语和宾语为同一体。
She concealed herself behind the door.(她躲在门背后。)
He picked himself up.(他自己爬起来了。)
Please make yourself at home.(请随便些。)
I cannot make myself understood.(我不能使人了解我的意思。)
He killed himself .(他自杀了。)
He thought little of himself .(他全不为自己着想。)
One should not praise oneself .(不宜自己称赞。)
It is hard to know oneself .(自知是很难的。)
She bought a ticket for herself .(她为她自己买了一张票。)(注意:如果用 for her,就可能误会是为另外一个女人买的票。)
反身代词可以和介词连用而构成成语,例如:
Between ourselves ,I am going to resign my post.(我只告诉你,我将辞职。)
I went there all by myself .(= alone)(我独自去那里的。)
I do everything for myself .(我一切都是自己做。)
The light went out of itself .(灯光自灭。)
A thing good in itself may become bad by its use.(本来好的东西也许可以用坏。)
He is beside himself with anger.(他狂怒不已。)
在这种用法中,包括许多惯用的成语,是不宜将 oneself 一字译出来的,例如:
Did you enjoyed yourself yesterday?(昨天玩得痛快吗?)
Seat yourself .(请坐。)
He absented himself from school yesterday.(他昨天没去上学。)
I avail myself of the opportunity of speaking English.(我利用这机会说英语。)
I resolved to revenge myself on him.(我决心对他报仇。)
He made himself sick by overeating himself .(他吃得太多而吃病了。)
Do not overwork yourself .(不要过劳。)
I overslept myself this morning.(我今晨睡得太多了。)
He excused himself for coming late.(他因迟到而道歉。)
Help yourself .(请随便用。)
②加强的用法
这不是用作宾语,而只是加强意味罢了。
I did it myself .(我亲自做的。)
It was the king himself .(那原是国王本人。)
The teacher himself (= Even the teacher)could not have done it.(老师也做不出来。)
I am a Chinese myself .(我就是一个中国人。)
That is his own house.(那是他的家。)
He has a house of his own .(他自己有一栋房子。)
(15)指示代词
指示代词是拿来指示某物的,又称形容词性代词,因为如果在它后面加上一个名词的话,它就成为形容词了。只有在单独用的时候,它才是指示代词,如:
1. This is now the mango season.(代词)
2. This golden mango is my favourite.(形容词)
1. Each of the pupils has his own bag.(代词)
2. Each boy has his own bag.(形容词)
1. Have you read any of his books?(代词)
2. Any school boy knows it.(形容词)
1. this、that、these、those 的用法
a. this 是指近处的东西,其复数为 these;而 that 是指远处的东西,其复数为 those。
① This is a shirt; that is a collar.
② These are mine,and those are yours.
b. 两个名词分别指示时,前者用 that(复数用 those),后者用 this(复数用 these)。
①Work and play are both necessary to health; this (= play)gives us rest,and that (= work)gives us energy.
②Dogs are more faithful animals than cats; these (= cats)attach themselves to places,and those (= dogs)to persons.
c. 为避免重复用同一名词,可用 that(复数用 those)来代替前面说过的名词。
①The air of lowlands is not so cool as that of hills.
②The ears of a horse are shorter than those of a rabbit.
d. 又可用 this、that 来代表前面的 clause 或 sentence。
①You suppose him to be a miser,but that is certainly a mistake.
②You paid your debts;and this is quite sufficient to prove your honesty.
e. that 不仅可以代表前面的 clause 或 sentence,而且可以加强其意义,但须用 and that 的形式。
I must consult with him, and that at once.
He will come, and that soon.
I studied English literature when I was young, and that at Oxford.
f. this、that 可以用来归纳既述的几个名词,但须与 all 连用。
①But all this was nothing to what followed.
②What is all that done for?
2. one、ones 的用法
a. 代表前面说过的不定的普通名词,就用 one(复数时用 ones)。
Have you a knife?Yes,I have one (= a knife).
但在 one 之前如有形容词时,就应再加冠词。如系复数的 ones,就可用 some 代替冠词。
Have you any knives?Yes,I have a sharp one . 或 Yes,I have some sharp ones .(但如果没有形容词时,则连名词也不要,只说 Yes,I have some. 就行了。)
b. 代表前面说过的“不定的普通名词”要用 one,但代表前面说过的“特定的单数普通名词”,就要用 it 才对。换句话说,即是 it 用于“同名同物”的场合,而 one 用于“同名异物”的场合。
Is this knife yours?No, it (= the knife)is my brother’s.(同名同物)Mine is the one (the knife)on the table.(同名异物。)
①Have you ever seen an elephant ?(不定的普通名词)
No,I have never seen one .
②Is this elephant from India?(特定的普通名词)
Yes, it is; it is very gentle.
c. one 如果是指一般人(men in general)的时候,后面的所有格就要用 one’s,如系限定的时候,就用 his、her 等。
① One must be careful not to break one’s word.
②To love one’s enemies is a Christian duty.
但 any one、some one、every one、each one、no one 等的场合就要接 he 或 his 了。
① Every one loves his mother.
②I saw some one in the distance,but could not tell in what direction he was going.
3. another、other 的用法
a. another 是 an + other 所构成的,含有两个意思:①另外的(different)。②也是一个(also one)。但都不指固定的事物。
①This shirt isn’t nice;show me another .(different)
②He is a fool,and his wife another .(also one)
b. one...the other 的用法。
在两件事物之中,随便取一件说 one,其余一件则说 the other。
Both my brothers are abroad, one in England and the other in America.
c. the one...the other 的用法。
在二者之中,说其一及其二,而 the one 更常用以指其次所提出之事物,不一定照原说的次序。
①Virtue and vice are before you; the one (指前者的 virtue)leads to happiness, the other (指后者的 vice)to misery.
②The bee and the snake draw material from the same plant. The one (指后者的 snake)transmutes it into deadly poison; the other (指前者的 bee)into delicious honey.
注意:the one...the other 又可作形容词用,如“With the one hand he held aloft the child and with the other (hand)he was making for the shore. ”。
d. others 及 the others 的用法。
有冠词和无冠词意思不同,others = other people,即“别人”,而 the others = the rest,即“其余的人”。
①Do as others do,and few will laugh at you.
②One of them was an American,but the others were Englishmen.
e. each other 及 one another 的用法。
二者之间用 each other,三个以上之间就要用 one another。
①Both of them helped each other .
②The three men helped one another .
f. one after another 及 one after the other 的用法。
前者表继续不断进行,即“逐渐”,后者为“轮流”。
① One falsehood after another falls off of itself.
②He raised one of his hands after the other.
4. each 的用法
① Each of them wanted to try.
②They each have a book.
但“They have a book each ”就是副词,而“ Each boy has a book”就是形容词。
5. either 和 neither 的用法
either 是“二者中任何一个”,而 neither 是“二者皆非”。
① Either will do.
②I know neither of his parents.
6. both 和 all 的用法
双方就说 both,三者以上就用 all。
① Both of my parents are tired out.
②They were both tired out.
③They both were tired out.
① All of the chickens are dead.
②They are all dead.
③They all are dead.
7. some 和 any 的用法
some 用于肯定,any 用于否定、疑问及条件句。
①Are there any staying at the hotel?(疑问)
②Yes,there are some .(肯定)
③No,there are not any .(否定)
④Give me a sheet of paper if you have any .(条件)
8. none 的用法
none 原是 no one 合拢来的,单复皆可,现今通常用作复数。又 no = not any 或 not a,而 none = no + Noun。
①Have you a book?No,I have none .(= no book)(单数)
②Have you any sisters?No,I have none .(= no sisters)(复数)
③ None but the brave deserve the fair.(复数)
9. such 的用法
a. 用来代替前面提过的名词
①If you are a gentleman,show yourself such .(such = a gentleman)
②He was a great scholar,and was respected as such .(such = a great scholar)
b. such = such men
Prosperous men are much exposed to flattery,for such (= such men)alone can be made to pay for it.
c. such as = those who
Such as (= those who)have plenty will never want friends.
10. the same 的用法
same 前可以加 the、this 或 that 用
He bought a dictionary,but soon sold the same .
(16)疑问代词
疑问代词用于问人及物的场合,共有 who、what、which 三个词。这三个疑问代词,是单复数通用的,what、which 没有所有格,其主格及宾格同形,惟有 who 在其格(Case)上有些变化。
1. who 是用于人的,问人的姓名及血族关系,例如:
① Who is he?He is Mr. Chang.(姓名)
② Who is she?She is my aunt.(血族关系)
2. what 可用于人或物,用于人的时候,就不是问其姓名,而是问其职业,用于物的时候,当然是问物名。
① What is that man?He is a doctor.(职业)
② What do you want?I want some ink.(物名)
3. which 也是人或物都可以用的,常表选择之意,即“孰”的意思。白话说“哪一个”。
① Which do you like better,novels or poems?(二者择其一)
② Which do you like best,beer,wine or spirit?(多数中择其一)
4. 疑问代词通常置于语句的开头,可与助动词同用。
① Whom do you want to see?
② Which do you want?
③ What ought we to do?
但用 be 及 have 时,则不要助动词,如:
① Which of the two sisters is the prettier?
比较:Which of the two sisters do you like better?
② What have you in your hand?
比较:What did you say?
注意:have 的这种用法是含有“所有”的意思,如无所有的意思,例如在 to have dinner(用餐),to have a good time(行乐)等 phrase 中,则仍须加用助动词,现举例比较如下:
①What has he in his left hand?(有所有意)
②What will you have for dinner?(无所有意)
① Have you any sports books?(有所有意)
② Did you have a fine time yesterday?(无所有意)
还有以疑问代词为主语的肯定句可不用助动词,但在否定句中则仍须用。
① Who told you that?
② What happened next?
③ Who among these merchants does the largest trade?
④ Which of these trees does not bear fruit?
5. 疑问代词为介词的宾格时,那介词可置于疑问词之前,也可置于反问词之后,也有置前置后皆可的。
② With whom did you speak?
③ Whom are you looking for?
6. 疑问句有两种,一种是以基本助动词(例如 be、have 等)开头的,另一种是以疑问词(例如 what、who、which、where、whom、how、why)开头的,通常无论哪一种,都是要把动词或助动词置于主语之前的,但如果这疑问句只是一个从句接在其他主句上时,主语和动词就不必颠倒,如:
Tell me which you like best?
比较:Which do you like best?
在上面以 which 为主语的句中,do(助动词)置于主语 you 之前,以表示主语和动词的颠倒。
又,以疑问词开头的疑问句,与其他分句结合时有两种方式,①为接于主句之后,②为把其他的分句插入疑问句之间,例如:
①Do you know who is ill ?Yes,I do.
②Who do you know is ill ?I think his father is ill.
在第一例句,可以回答 yes 或 no,第二例句就不能回答 yes 或 no,通常是 know、hear、tell、ask 等动词的分句,置于疑问词之前,而 think、suppose、believe 等动词的分句,置于疑问词之后,但 say 一字则置前置后皆可,不过意思不同罢了。
① Did you say what you wanted?Yes,I did.
②What did you say wanted?I said I wanted some money.
第一句主要是问你说了没说,故有回答 yes 或 no 的必要,但第二句主要是问你要什么,所以只能答要的东西,不能回答要与不要。
7. 有关 what 的 phrase。
① What if I should fall sick now?(倘若……将如何)
② What though I fall sick now?(纵令……又何妨)
③He talked of rights and duties,and rights and wrongs,and what not .(此外等等)
④ What by threatening,and what by coaxing,he finally accomplished his purpose.(半以……半以……)
⑤ What with the high price of provisions,and what with the occational sickness,the family found it very difficult to live on their income.(或因……或因……)
后二例中的 what 不是代词,而是副词。
(17)关系代词
关系代词不仅是用以代理其先行的名词,而且要拿来连接前后两个语句,所以它是“代词而兼连词”的。比方“This is a bird. ”和“I caught it(= the bird). ”两句,用连词 and 连接起来,便成为“This is a bird, and I caught it. ”再进一步可使这两句更密切地结合拢来,就是将句中的代词(it)及连词(and)换用一个关系代词的 that。即:“This is the bird that (= and it)I caught. ”。
(注)因为这时的 bird 已受到 that 以下字句的限制,所以要将冠词 a 改为 the。
1. 关系代词及其先行词(Antecedent)
上例中的 bird 一词便是关系代词 that 的先行词,因为那是它所代理的其先行的名词。关系代词在“人称”及“数”上,一定要和它的先行词一致,例如:
I ,who am a poor man,cannot do such a thing.
You ,who are a rich man,may do anything you like.
Heaven helps those who help themselves.
Heaven helps him who helps himself.
句中的 who 为关系代词,随其先行词而变换它的人称和数。
先行词不一定是一个单词,它有时也可能是一个短语,或一个分句,例如:
He tried to win the prize ,which,however,was found impossible.(短语)
We missed the train ,which prevented us from reaching there in time.(分句)
2. 关系代词的格(Case)
That is the man who teaches me English.(主格)
That is the man whose son I teach.(所有格)
That is the man whom I teach.(宾格)
(注意)用于人的关系代词,主格、所有格、宾格各有一词,一见分明,不至弄错,但用于物的关系代词是 which(有时 that),词的本身无变化,初学者也许在句中就不容易看出它的格来了。须知决定它的格的,不在它前面的词,而在它后面的词,例如:“Success will come to him who is always honest and diligent. ”一句中的 who 的格,和它前面那宾格的 him 没有关系,而只是后面 is 的主格罢了。还有一点要注意的,就是关系代词若系主格时,后面便直接接上动词;如系宾格时,后面的动词前就得另外加上一个主语。
3. 关系代词的用法
(a)who 的先行词是人。
This is a man who will never tell a lie.(主格)
Those whom the gods love die young.(宾格)
A man whose husband is dead is called a widow.(所有格)
(b)which 的先行词是物。
That is the house which belongs to him.(主格)
That is the house which he brought last year.(宾格)
That is the house the roof of which we saw from beyond the river.(所有格)
(注意)先行词为短语或从句时,关系代词要用 which,例见前。
(c)that 的先行词是人或物,可代替 who、whom、which 用,但不能用于所有格。
He is the American that (= who)teaches us English.(主格)
The man that (= whom)I met just now is my uncle.(宾格)
The book that (= which)has a red cover is mine.(主格)
This is the knife that (= which)I lost yesterday.(宾格)
(注意)that 不可接用介词。
误:The house in that he lives is not his own.
正:The house that he lives in is not his own.
正:The house in which he lives is not his own.
(d)that 的特殊用法。
① 先行词的形容词为最高级的场合:
He is the best tennis player that I know.
② 在疑问词 who 之后:
Who is the man that is speaking there?
③ 先行词既是人又是物的场合:
He sketched a driver and his cows that were passing over the bridge.
④ 在 the only、the same、the very 等之后:
He is the only man that can be trusted.
This is the very man that I wanted to see.
This is the same watch that I lost yesterday.
⑤ 在 indefinite pronouns 之后:
All that glitters is not gold.
No thing that he does is badly done.
Energy will do anything that can be done in the world.
I have something that I wish to tell you.
There is little that remains to be said.
⑥ 在数字之后:
He is the third person that has found out the secret.
⑦ 在 emphatic use 的 it is...that 的场合:
It is not ease but effort that makes man.
(e)what 是包含有先行词在内的关系代词。
What (= that which)is beautiful is not always good.
They are what (= those which)you call blue stockings.
I did what (= all that)I could.
What money(= all the money which)he gets he spends on drink.
(f)but 是含有否定在内的。
There is no rule but (= which...not)has exceptions.
There was no one present but (= who...not)saw the deed.
(g)as 和 than 原来是连词,如其后的代词省略时,则成为关系代词了。
As many men as came were caught.
This is more money than is needed.
4. 关系代词的特殊用法
① 限定的用法(Restrictive use)
He is the man who gave me this English magazine.
The gentleman who is standing over there is our teacher.
I received the letter which you sent me yesterday.
将整个的分句看作一个形容词来修饰先行的名词,而限定它的意义的,就叫作限定的用法。在这种关系代词前不要逗号(Comma)。这种 who 和 which,都可以用 that 来代替,因为 that 有限定的意思。
② 继续的用法(Continuative Use)
I met a man, who (= and he)gave me this English magazine.
He slew all the prisoners, which (= and this)was a very barbarous act.
I received a letter this morning, which (= and it)I have forgotten to bring here.
这并无形容词的效果,而用逗号使之与其先行的名词或短语或分句切断,等于用并列连词(Coordinate Conjunction)结合起来的两个对等句子。这就是说,没有这个从句,单只留下那个主句也能成立。
③ 副词的用法(Adverb Use)
I will let off this man, who (= because he)has been sufficiently punished already.
A man was sent, who should(= that he might)deliver the message.
One who (= if one)wishes to be in good health should not neglect to take a moderate amount of exercise.
The man, who (= though he)was very poor,never complained of his lot.
凡关系代词不属于上举两种用法,而引导一个表示“理由、目的、条件、让步”等的副词从句的,就属于副词的用法。
(注意)以 that 代 who 或 which 只限于“限定的用法”,而在“继续的用法”时则不可以用 that 来代替。有时因意义上的关系,也不能用限制的 that,例如说“I have heard from my brother that is in America. ”一句是对的,因为限制写信的是在美国的那个兄弟,不是在其他地方的兄弟。但是如说“I have heard from my father that is in America. ”就是笑话,因为父亲只有一位,不能加以限制,而暗示除在美国的那位以外另外还有,这时的 that 应改为 who 才对。通常是以 which 表不限定的,而以 that 表限定的:
The boy that practices will win the race.
The river, which is tidal,is full of shipping.
5. 作为介词宾语的关系代词
The house of which you speak is sold.
The house in which he lives is sold.
The chair on which you are sitting is too small.
The man with whom I live is Mr. Chang.
6. 关系代词的省略
上面第5项中所举各例,如将其中的介词移置于动词之后,便可将关系代词省略,例如:
The house(which)you speak of is sold.
The house(which)he lives in is sold.
The chair(which)you are sitting on is too small.
The man(whom)I live with is Mr. Chang.
又,在其他没有介词的句中只要词不害意,也同样可将关系代词省略,例如:
Is this the book(which)you want to read?
There is no one(who)knows it.
It is not the fine coat(that)makes the fine gentleman.
7. 复合的关系代词
Whoever (= Any one who)wishes to succeed must persevere.
Bring whoever (= anyone who)wants to come.
He flatters whosever (= anyone whose)father is rich.
Bring whomever (= any one whom)you like.
He succeeds in whatever (= anything that)he undertakes.
Choose whichever (= either that)you like.
8. 关系副词(Relative Adverb)
这当然应该属于副词部分,不过因为它的用法完全和关系代词一样,为区别计,特附此说明一下。关系副词有 when、where、why、how、that 等。
① 引导一个 Adjective Clause 的。
This is the city where I was born.
This is the reason why he has done so.
(注)the city 为关系副词 where 的先行词,the reason 为关系副词 why 的先行词。where I was born 及 why he has done so 都是形容词从句。
② 省略先行词而引导一个 Noun Clause 的关系副词的用法,和关系代词中那兼先行词的 what 的用法相同。
Let me know(the time) when he will come.
Tell me(the place) where you found it.
This is(the reason) why he did it.
This is(the way) how he did it.
(18)动词的变化
英文的动词有三种主要的形式(Three Principal Parts of the Verb),即原形(Root)、过去式(Past)和过去分词(Past Participle)。这便是动词的变化。
Ⅰ. 原形(Root Form)
动词的基本的形态,有下列五种用法:
① 作为现在时态
I speak English.(我说英语。)
We write in English.(我们用英文写作。)
但动词 be 是例外,其本身因人称而有变化,即第一人称的 I 用 am,第二人称的 you 用 are,第三人称的 he 用 is。
② 用于 shall、will、may、can、do、must、need、dare 等助动词之后
I shall go .(我会去。)
He will come .(他会来。)
I do not go .(我不去。)
You must go at once.(你必得马上就去。)
③ 作为不定词
(a)原形不定词(Root-Infinitive)
He bade me sit down.(他命令我坐下。)
We felt the earth quake .(我们感到地震。)
(b)有 to 的不定词(to-Infinitive)
He likes to work .(他喜欢工作。)
It was a day to be remembered forever.(这是一个永远难忘的日子。)
④ 在字尾加-ing 作成现在分词(Present Participle)
He was writing a letter while his sister was reading a book.(他在写信,他妹在读书。)
Have you seen the sleeping child?(你看见那睡着的孩子吗?)
⑤ 作为命令形的动词
Be silent!(不要作声!)
Do it at once.(马上去做。)
Ⅱ. 过去式(Past Form)
作为过去时态(Past Tense):
I walked three miles.(我步行了三里路。)
He wrote a letter.(他写了一封信。)
Ⅲ. 过去分词(Past Participle Form)
这种形态有下列三种用法:
① 以 have + 过去分词,作成完成时态(Perfect Tense)
I have written a letter.(我写了一封信。)
② 以 be + 过去分词,作成被动语气(Passive Voice)
I was spoken to by an old gentleman.(有一位老先生来对我讲话。)
③ 作为形容词
A retired officer.(退役军官。)
The languages spoken in Switzerland are French,German and Italian.(在瑞士说的语言有法语、德语和意大利语。)
(19)规则动词(Regular Verb)
在动词原形上加-ed,作成过去式和过去分词的,就叫作规则动词,否则为不规则动词。
①原形 + ed 的
② 去掉原形上的词尾 e 而再加-ed 的
③ 词尾为辅音 + y 时,则将 y 变 i 再加-ed 的
(但词尾为元音 + y 时,则不变而直接加-ed)
④ 词尾为“短元音 + 单辅音”的单音节词时,应先将辅音重复一个后再加-ed
⑤ 以辅音结尾,而重音落在最后一个音节上时,也得将辅音重复一个后再加-ed
(20)不规则动词(Irregular Verb)
不规则动词却不像规则动词那样,可以有一定的法则,它的变化很多,现勉强分为下列四种:
① 原形、过去式、过去分词三者同形的
② 只有元音有变化的
(a)过去式及过去分词同形的
③ 词尾有变化的
(a)元音不变的
(b)元音变化的
④ 特殊变化的
(21)动词的种类
语句的基本形式有下列五种:
〔第一形式〕Subject + Predicate
〔第二形式〕Subject + Predicate + Complement
〔第三形式〕Subject + Predicate + Object
〔第四形式〕Subject + Predicate + Indirect Object + Direct Object
〔第五形式〕Subject + Predicate + Object + Complement
以动词为主来分类的话,就是:
如上表所示,动词有不及物动词和及物动词两种,不及物动词又有完全不及物动词和不完全不及物动词之别,及物动词也同样地有完全及物动词和不完全及物动词之别。
1. 完全不及物动词(Complete Intransitive Verb)和不完全不及物动词(Incomplete Intransitive Verb)
a. 完全不及物动词
Pride goes before a fall. 骄者必败。
We sat under the shade of a tree. 我们坐在树荫下。
b. 不完全不及物动词
Health is wealth. 健康即财富。
Practice makes perfect. 熟能生巧。
2. 完全及物动词(Complete Transitive Verb)和不完全及物动词(Incomplete Transitive Verb)
a. 完全及物动词(有采用一个宾语的或采用两个宾语的)
Nobody can trust a liar. 谁也不相信撒谎者。
Waiter, bring me two eggs. 茶房,拿两个蛋给我。
He showed me the way to the science museum. 他指示了我去科学博物院的路。
When we parted,he wished me a good journey. 当我们离别时他祝我一路平安。
上例中的 me 为 Indirect Object,而 the way 和 journey,则为 Direct Object。间接宾语常置于直接宾语之前,但如置于直接宾语之后时,就得在其前面加用一个 to 字(如动词为 buy、get、make 等时,则加用 for)。
但直接宾语如为 it 时,则口语中常将 to 略去,如:
b. 不完全及物动词(有时需要加补语)
His father made him a merchant. 父亲使他成为商人。
I found the book interesting. 我觉得那书很有趣。
c. 反身动词(Reflexive Verb)
在动词后面加 oneself 字样,但意义上常不要译出来。
I have enjoyed myself very much. 我玩得很快活。
The young man exerts himself to please his employer. 那青年勉力从事以博雇主的欢心。
He devoted himself to his work. 他献身于工作。
He absented himself from school for that day. 他那天没有上学。
He prides himself on his knowledge of English. 他对于他的英文颇为骄傲。
I shall avail myself of your kind offer. 我将拜领(利用)你的盛情。
I am afraid I’ve overslept myself . 我恐怕我睡得太多了。
I don’t want to overeat myself . 我不要过分地吃得太多了。
He applied himself closely to the study of French. 他孜孜不倦地在学法文。
Take care not to overwork yourself . 当心不要过劳。
How do you amuse yourself in rainy weather?下雨天你怎样消遣的?
He shouted ( talked , sang ) himself hoarse. 他大声地叫,喉咙都叫哑了。
试比较下列用 oneself 与不用 oneself 之例句:
He associated (= kept company)with pleasant companions. 他交际愉快的朋友。
He associated himself (= entered into partnership)with that firm. 他加入那公司做股东了。
He broke off (= discontinued)the habit. 他戒断了那种习惯。(一般的说法)
He broke himself off the habit. 他断然地戒绝了那种习惯。(加强的说法)
Guard against(beware of)that vice. 要戒备那种恶习。
Guard yourself (= take special precautions)against that vice. 要特别注意那种恶习。
He prepared for a lesson. 他准备功课。
He prepared himself for the examination. 他孜孜努力准备应考。
3. 英文动词大多数是不及物动词而兼及物动词的
They open the doors at nine. 他们九时开门。(及物)
School opens at eight o’clock. 学校八时上课。(不及物)
Bad men hide their faults. 坏人隐藏其恶。(及物)
Bats hide during the day. 蝙蝠昼伏夜出。(不及物)
He turned me out of the room. 他把我逐出室外。(及物)
He turned to me and spoke. 他转向我说。(不及物)
He feeds the horse with grass. 他以草饲马。(及物)
Many people feed on rice. 多数人以米为生。(不及物)
He spread his garment. 他铺开他的衣。(及物)
The mist spread over the earth. 地上满笼着雾。(不及物)
He closed the business. 他歇业了。(及物)
The day closed at six p. m. 天在六时断黑。(不及物)
The wind dispersed the clouds. 风吹云散。(及物)
The clouds have dispersed from the sky. 云从天散。(不及物)
那些只限于作不及物动词用的动词,例如:be、come、go、become、fall 等,是没有被动语态(Passive Voice)的。
4. 不及物动词作及物动词用的场合
a. 采用同源的名词作宾语的,即 Cognate Verb,其宾语就称为 Cognate Object。
He died a sad death . 他死得惨。
He lived a long life . 他命很长。
He preyed an earnest prayer . 诚心祈祷。
He slept a sound sleep . 熟睡。
He dreamed a pleasant dream . 做了一个愉快的梦。
He sighed a deep sigh . 长叹了一声。
He laughed a hearty laugh . 开心地笑了。
It is blowing a gale . 刮大风。
He struck a hard blow . 重击一下。
He fought a good battle . 打了一场好仗。
He ran a race . 他赛跑了。
He shouted his loudest (shout). 他大声呐喊。
He fought his best (fight). 他竭力奋斗了一场。
She sang her sweetest (song). 她唱了她最拿手的歌。
He ran his fastest (run). 他最快地跑了。
He breathed his last (breath). 他呼出了最后一口气。
b. 不及物动词用作使动(to cause)之意的。
He boils the water.(= He causes the water to boil.)他烧开水。(及物)
Cf. Water boils . 水沸。(不及物)
He grows wheat in the field. 他种小麦。(及物)
Cf. Wheat does not grow in Taiwan. 台湾不长小麦。(不及物)
He flew the kite. 他放风筝。(及物)
Cf. The kite flew in the air. 风筝飞上天。(不及物)
c. 不及物动词与介词同用时,便有及物动词的意味。这又称为 Prepositional Verb。例如:
The boys laughed at him. 孩子们笑他。
Please look after my little boy in my absence. 我不在家时请照顾我的小孩。
Have you sent for the doctor?你已经去请医生了吗?
5. 及物动词作不及物动词用的场合
a. 用作一般意义(general sense)的
The cat can see in the dark. 猫能在暗中看见。(不及物)
Cf. I can see nothing. 我什么也看不见。(及物)
We eat in order to live. 为生而食。(不及物)
Cf. I ate some beef at supper.晚餐吃了牛肉。(及物)
Man can speak . 人能说话。(不及物)
Cf. He can speak English very well. 他能说一口好英文。(及物)
He can neither read nor write . 他既不能读,也不能写。(不及物)
Cf. He is reading a novel while I am writing a letter. 他读小说我写信。(及物)
b. 及物动词用作不及物动词而具有被动意义(passive sense)的
This fruit tastes sweet.(= It is sweet when it is tasted.)此果甚甜。(不及物)
Cf. Have you tasted the fruit?你尝了那水果么?(及物)
The flower smelled fragrant. 此花甚香。(不及物)
Cf. The girl smelled the flower. 少女嗅花。(及物)
The article reads well. 那文章很好读。(不及物)
Cf. I shall read the article. 我将读那文章。(及物)
A villa is building .(= is being built)一座别墅在建筑中。(不及物)
Cf. They are building a villa. 他们在建筑别墅。(及物)
The guns are firing . 在放大炮。(不及物)
Cf. They are firing the guns. 他们在放大炮。(及物)
The book is printing . 那书在印刷中。(不及物)
Cf. They are printing the book. 他们在印那书。(及物)
c. 及物动词加副词作不及物动词用的
He made off (= ran away)with the money. 他卷款潜逃。
He set out (= started)at 4 p. m. 他下午四时出发了。
He turned out (= became)a prosperous merchant. 他变成一个富裕的商人了。
He got off (= escaped)unharmed. 他平安逃出。
He pushed on (= hurried forward)as fast as he could. 他尽速地前进。
Cholera has broken out (= suddenly appeared). 发生了霍乱。
He gave in (= yielded)after a short struggle. 挣扎了一下他就屈服了。
(22)动词的时态
表示动作和状态之时的动词的形式,就叫作时态(Tense)。在英语中一共有十二种不同的时态,如下表:
但动词 to be,是没有进行式和 Passive 的,现将其时态及三种人称举出如下:
1. PRESENT(现在)
①Present Tense 是用 Verb 的 Root-form(原形),不过在第三人称单数的时候,要加 s 或 es。
The flowers fall . 花落。
He goes to school. 他上学。
②Present Tense 的用法。
a. 表示现在的动作(present action)。
I see a ship in the distance. 我看见远处有一只船。
〔注〕表示现在的动作,多用现在进行时。
b. 表示习惯的动作(habitual action)。
I always play baseball in the afternoon. 我常在下午打棒球。(个人的习惯)
He keeps his promise. 他是守约的。(人格)
He deals in earthenwares. 他做陶器生意。(职业)
c. 表示一般的真理(general truth)。
The sun shines by day and the moon by night. 白天有阳光照耀夜里有月光照亮。
d. 代替将来时(Future Tense)用。常在 go,come,leave,start 等动词连有未来的副词时。
The steamer leaves here tomorrow. 轮船明日离此。
e. 在以 if、when、while、before、after、till 等连词引导的条件句,或表时的副词从句中,以现在代未来。
We shall not go out if it rains tomorrow. 明天下雨的话,我们就不出去。
Please wait till I come back. 请等我回来。
〔注一〕如果这个副词从句是表示“意志”的话,仍然要用 will。即“I shall be glad if you will do so. ”(如果你肯这样做,我就高兴了)。
〔注二〕如果不是副词从句,而是名词从句时,也仍然要用将来的时态,即“Let us inquire if he will go today. ”(问问他今天是不是要去)。
f. 代替过去时(Past Tense)用。这是要使读者产生活生生的感觉,故用现在动词,仿佛目前发生的事情一样。又称历史现在时(Historical Present)。
Caesar leaves Gaul, crosses the Rubicon,and enters Italy with 5,000 men. 恺撒率五千之众,由高卢出发,渡过泸河,进入了意大利。
g. 代替现在完成时(Present Perfect)用。
I hear (= have heard)she is going to marry. 听说她要结婚了。
I read (= have read)in the newspapers that he has been elected Mayor of Tainan. 我在报上看到他被选为台南市长了。
2. PRESENT PROGRESSIVE(现在进行)
① 表示正在进行中的事。
He is now teaching English in the next room. 他现正在隔壁的教室教着英文。
〔比较〕He teaches English in that school. 他在那个学校教英文(用现在时态表示他的职业)。
② 与未来的副词同用,表示未来及预定之意。常用 go、come、leave、start、stay 等动词的进行时。
He is going (= will go)to America next month. 他下月赴美。
Are you staying (= Will you stay)here till next week?你将停留到下星期才走吧?
③ 用 to be going + Infinitive 的形式,表示最近未来想要做的事。
I am going to start for Europe. 我正打算动身到欧洲去。
I am just going to advise him to go out for a walk. 我正预备劝他出去散步一回。
④ 用 Present Tense 来表示现在正进行的动作或状态。因为 have、resemble、like、see、hear、remember、need、understand、possess、belong 等词,是没有进行时的。“我有钱”,只消说“I have money. ”就行了,不可以说“I am having money. ”“我只认识他的面孔”应说“I know him only by sight. ”不可说“I am knowing him only by sight. ”其他如“He has a good constitution. ”(他体格很好。)“He closely resembles his father.”(他很像他父亲。)也都是如此。试比较下列各句:
I see something white in the distance.
I am looking at the sky.
I hear him singing.
He is listening to the music.
He has no money with him now.
They are having a jolly time.
We are having a terrible hot summer.
He is having his supper.
〔注一〕因 see 无进行时,要表示正在看,只能说 be looking at。同样地要用 be listening to 代替 hear。
〔注二〕动词 have 作“有”解时,没有进行式,用作进行式时必另有含义,如 have jolly time(玩得很快乐),have a terrible hot summer(今夏酷热),have one’s supper(在吃晚饭)等。
3. PAST(过去)
① 表示过去的动作或状态。
We met him at the station.(动作)
We were there all summer.(状态)
② 表示过去一种习惯的动作。
He used to sit every day under that tree. 他从前老是每天坐在那棵树下。
He would spend whole hours in examining its various parts. 他老是要花好几个钟头来检查各部分。
〔注〕以 would 表过去的习惯时,多与 often、sometimes 等副词同用。
4. PAST PROGRESSIVE(过去进行)
表示过去某个指定的时候所发生的进行中的动作。
Once two men were traveling together. 从前有两个男子正在一块儿旅行中。
I was reading a novel when you came. 你来时我正在读着一本小说。
5. FUTURE(未来)
表示未来有下列种种形式。
I shall go to Tainan.
I am going to Tainan.
I am going to leave Taipei.
I am about to leave Taipei.
I am to go to Tainan.
6. FUTURE PROGRESSIVE(将来进行)
表示未来某个指定的时候将发生的进行中的动作。
He is much interested in reading that book. He will be still reading it if you look in at his room.
他对那本书很感兴趣。你到他房里去看看,他仍然还抱着那本书在读着。
7. PRESENT PERFECT(现在完成)
现在完成有下列种种用法。
①表示到目下刚完成的事。
I have just written this letter. 我刚把这信写完了。
②表示动作已完,其结果则成为现在的状态。
He has gone to Taipei.(= He is not here. He is in Taipei now.)他到台北去了。
③表示过去的经验。
I have seen him before. 我以前见到过他。
④表示继续到现在为止的状态。
He has been ill since last Monday. 他自上星期一以来就生病了。
8. PRESENT PERFECT PROGRESSIVE(现在完成进行)
表示从过去到现在,也许还要继续到将来的动作。
What have you been doing all this while?你这一晌在做些什么呀?
I have been studying English for five years.(继续)
I have studied English for five years.(经验)
〔注〕have been studying 表示过去学了,现在正在学,将来还要学。
9. PAST PERFECT(过去完成)
表示过去某个指定的时候以前所发生的事。
They had known each other before they got married. 他们在结婚以前早就相知有素了。
〔注〕如第一句,照动作的顺序排列,即先借后还,就可用 Past,但如第二句,把顺序颠倒,即先说还再说借时,就得用 Past Perfect 了,had borrowed 是表示在 returned 以前发生的动作。
10. PAST PERFECT PROGRESSIVE(过去完成进行)
表示某动作继续到过去的某个时候为止。
I had been waiting about an hour when he came. 我等待了差不多一个钟头他才来。
I had been studying English before I went to bed. 我在就寝以前读了英文。
11. FUTURE PERFECT(将来完成)
表示到未来某个时候为止已经会做好了的事。
I shall have finished it by the time school begins. 在上课以前我就会把它做好的。
注意:在 Adverb Clause 中应以 Present Perfect 来代替 Future Perfect,如 Wait till I have finished eating.(等我吃完饭再说。)
12. FUTURE PERFECT PROGRESSIVE(将来完成进行)
表示继续到未来某个时候为止就要完成的事。
He will have been teaching in this school full ten years(by)next July. 到明年七月,他就在本校足足教了十年的书了。
(23)语态和语气
Ⅰ. 语态
1. 动词的语态有两种,一种是主动语态(Active Voice),另一种是被动语态(Passive Voice)。
主动语态是以句中的主语为主动的,而被动语态就是以那主语为动作的对象的,例如:
① A dog bit the boy.(Active Voice)
狗咬了小孩。
② The boy was bitten by a dog.(Passive Voice)
小孩被狗咬了。
大部分的情形是可以把语态互相改写的,只有极少数的动词,如 happen 等,才没有被动语态。
2. 由主动改成被动时,是要把原来的宾语用作主语,而动词就用 be + Past Participle 的形式,然后加 by,再加宾语(即原来的主语)。
3. 主动改被动应注意下列各项:
a. 用 people,they,you,we,one 为主动语态的主语,而指一般人的场合,改作被动语态时,通常将这主语略去,不必再加 by people 的字样:
People say that he is rich.(Active)
It is said that he is rich.(Passive)
They speak English all over the world.(A)
English is spoken all over the world.(P)
What do you call this flower?(A)
What is this flower called?(P)
One does not feel a burden of one’s own choice.(A)
A burden of one’s own choice is not felt.(P)
b. 如有两个宾语的话,被动就有两种写法:
He gave me this advice .(A)
I was given this advice by him.(P)
This advice was given me by him.(P)
c. 带有介词的动词,改为被动时,介词仍不可少:
They take care of him.(A)
He is taken care of by them.(P)
She laughed at me.(A)
I was laughed at by her.(P)
We sent for the doctor.(A)
The doctor was sent for .(P)
d. 命令法的场合,要加用 let 一词:
Do it at once.(A)
Let it be done at once.(P)
Take this letter to the post-office.(A)
Let this letter be taken to the post-office.(P)
e. 动词为 know 的时候,后不接 by,而要接 to:
Everybody knows him.(A)
He is known to everybody.(P)
f. 动词的数及时态,应随之改变:
Virtue makes life happy.(A)
Life is made happy by virtue.(P)
I will pay the money.(A)
The money shall be paid by me.(P)
I shall pay the money.(A)
The money will be paid by me.(P)
They can not have said such a thing.(A)
Such a thing can not have been said .(P)
g. 有时中国话说的主动语态,英文却要用被动语态:
I am delighted to see you in good health.
I was surprised at his ignorance.
I am interested in learning English.
I am satisfied with the result.
I was disappointed then.
The train was derailed near Taipei.
(注)被动语态不一定要用 by,如果是指工具就要用 with,只有指行为者才用 by,例如:
He was killed by the robber.
He was killed with a sword.
Ⅱ. 语气
1. 动词的语气有三种,即直陈语气(Indicative Mood),祈使语气(Imperative Mood)和虚拟语气(Subjunctive Mood)。
2. 直陈语气是不问现在、过去、未来而只是直述某种事实的,一般普通的语句,大都是用的这种语气。
He studies hard.
He is very diligent.
Dead man tells no tales.
What is the best formula for success in life?
3. 祈使语气是用于表示命令、请求、祈祷等的,普通常将主语的 you 省略不说,而动词就用 Root form,否定句时则在动词前加 do not 或 don’t 字样。
Boys, be ambitious!(命令)
Bring me some water,please.(请求)
Lead us not into temptation,but deliver us from evil.(祈祷)
否定时则可说:
Do not sleep in the classroom.
Don’t yawn before others.
有时在普通动词的 Root form 前再加上一个 do 字以加强语气,如
Do save us!
对第一人称及第三人称的祈使语气,就是用 let:
Let me go!
Let him do it!
Let us take a walk!
4. 在祈使语气之后,接有 and 或 or 时,就是表示条件的。
Sow virtue, and the harvest will be virtue.(= If you sow virtue,then the harvest will be virtue.)
Keep quiet, or I will punish you.(= If you do not keep quiet,I will punish you.)(= Unless you keep quiet,I will punish you.)
5. 祈使语气有时可用来表示让步。
Be the work what it may,always do your best.(= Whatever the work may be,...)(= No matter what the work may be,...)(= Let the work be what it may,...)
Try as you may,you will not be able to master English in a few months.(= However hard you may try,you will not...)
Call when you will,you will find him out.(= whenever you may call,you...)
6. 将 suppose 和 say 用于祈使语气时,则 suppose 当 if 解,say 当 for instance 解,例如:
Suppose you were in his place what would you do?
What do you say to going there in a week or so, say next Sunday?
7. 虚拟语气的时态有四种,Present 用 If I be ;Future 用 If I should be ;Past 用 If I were ;Past Perfect 用 If I had been 。
8. Present Subjunctive(虚拟语气的现在),表示对现在或未来的不确实的想象,第三人称单数不加 s。
If he be good-mannered,he may also be good-natured.
(注)若将上句 Present Subjunctive 改为 Present Indicative 时,则成 If he is good-mannered,he is not good-natured. 在虚拟语气的说法,意为“他的仪容好不好”尚不确实,若是“仪容很好的话,其性情可能也是好的”,不妨作此想象。至于直陈语气的说法,则对“他仪容之好”已无疑义,而断定“他仪容虽好,性情却不好”。一则说的想象,一则说的事实。目下英美的口语,颇有以 Present Indicative 代替 Present Subjunctive 的倾向。
9. Future Subjunctive(虚拟语气的将来),表示对现在或未来的强大的疑义。不论是何人称,都用 should + Root 的形式,意为“万一的话”,后接 should,would + Root 或 will,shall + Root 或命令句。
If he should be found older than I think,I would not employ him.(I don’t think he is old.)
If I should fail,I would try again.(I shall not fail.)
If it should rain tomorrow,the swimming meet will be postponed.
(注)第一句是对现在的,第二、三句是对未来的强大的疑义。
10. Past Subjunctive(虚拟语气的过去),表示与现在的事实相反的假设,动词常用过去式,但动词 be 则要用 were,三个人称都是一样。后接的主句中的动词,就要用 should(或 would,或 could)+ Root。
If I were rich,I could do so.(= As I am not rich,I can not do so.)
If I were you,I would go abroad.(= As I am not you,I do not go abroad.)
If he were with us,we should be delighted.(= As he is not with us,we are sorry.)
If it were not for the sun,we could not live at all.(= As there is the sun,we can live.)
11. Past Perfect Subjunctive(虚拟语气的过去完成),表示与过去的事实相反的想象,动词用 Past Perfect,后接 would,should + have + Past Participle 的形式。
If he had been diligent,he would have passed the entrance examination.(= As he was not diligent,he did not pass the entrance examination.)
If I had had money,I would have helped you.(= As I had no money then,I could not help you.)
If it had been fine,I should have been glad.(= As it was not fine,I was sorry.)
If it had not been for your help,I should have been drowned .(= As you helped me,I was not drowned.)
12. 除以上四种虚拟语气之外,还有一些在语句中须用或代替虚拟语气的地方,现分条举出如下:
a. 表示与未来的事实相反的想象。如大家都知道阳光是永远不会消逝的,现若假定太阳无光的话,就要用 If + were to 的形式,后接 should,would + Root。例如:
If the sun were to be extinguished ,the whole earth would be fast bound in a frost in a day or two.
If I were to go abroad,I would go to America.
b. 在 wish 后面应该用虚拟语气的 Past 或 Past Perfect,表示对于现在,过去将来的事难以达到的愿望。
I wish I were a musician.(= I am sorry that I am not a musician.)(现在)
I wish I had been there.(= I am sorry I was not there.)(过去)
I wish he could come.(= I am sorry he will not come.)(将来)
I wish to be a sailor.(将来的志愿)
I wish I were a bird.(现在未达成的志愿)
I wish I had been a statesman.(过去未达成的志愿)
I wish the rain would stop tomorrow.(将来的切望)
c. 在 as if 后应该接虚拟语气,由 as if 引导的从句,不论主语的单复,常要用复数形。
He speaks as if he were my friend.(= He speaks as he would speak if he were my friend.)
He looks as if nothing had happened .
d. 省略 if 的场合。要将主语和助动词或基本助动词颠倒。
Were I rich(= If I were rich),I would buy it.
We may lie down there, should we fall ill.(= if we should fall ill.)
Were it not for freezing(= If it were not for freezing),the stars would not be so bright.
Had you been more careful(= If you had been more careful),you would not have fallen ill.
Had it not been for your advice(= If you had not given me your advice),I should have grown desperate.
e. 在虚拟语气中用 would 的话,表示那主语有“肯做不肯做,原不知道,如果肯做的话”之意。
If you would only do your best,you would be sure to succeed.
If you would lend me the book,I should be much obliged.
但是如下的说法,又可以表示与现在相反的事实:
He could do it,if he would .
f. 用 Infinitive 来表示虚拟语气的:
It would be wrong to tell a lie.(= It would be wrong if I were to tell a lie.)
I should be happy to be of service to you.
g. 用 Preposition 来表示虚拟语气的:
I would go abroad, but for my poverty.(Were it not for my poverty,I would go abroad.)
Without water the plants and trees would all die.(= If there were no water,the plants...)
With an army of such soldiers,I could conquer the whole world.
h. 用 Conjunction 来表示虚拟语气的:
He worked very hard, otherwise (or else)he would have failed .(= If he had not worked hard,he would have failed.)
Life would be short, but that hope prolongs it.
i. 用 Noun 来表示虚拟语气的:
A wise man would not do such a thing.(= If he were a wise man,he would not do such a thing.)
j. 将条件句省略的场合:
I should like to go with you.(= I should like to go with you,if I could.)
He must be over fifty,I should think .(= He must be over fifty,I should think if I were to think about it.)
I could have come last evening.(= I could have come last evening if I had wanted to.)
Would you kindly lend me your pen?(= Would you kindly lend me your pen,if I were to ask you.)
Might I as k you to show me the way?(= Might I ask you to show me the way,if you didn’t mind.)
Could you spare me a copy?(= Could you spare me a copy,if I were to ask you.)
(24)助动词用法
加在动词之前以补足其意的词就叫做助动词(Auxiliary Verb),其主要的动词,就称主动词(Principal Verb)。有些助动词是有过去的变化的,如 do-did,will-would,shall-should,may-might,can-could,dare-dared(durst),其他如 must,ought to,need,则只有一个形式没有任何变化。兹将各助动词分别举例说明如下:
1. Do (后接略去了 to 的不定词)
a. 在问句及否定句中通常要用 do。
① Do you take exercise everyday?(问句)
你每天都要运动吗?
② Don’t count your chickens before they are hatched.(否定句)
鸡卵未孵勿先数雏。(格言)
但在 to be,to have 的时候,则不用 do,如:
① Have you friends or relatives in this city?
你在本城有亲戚朋友吗?
②Life is not a picture.
人生并不如画。
b. who,what 等疑问词用作宾语时要 do,但用作主语时则不要 do,如:
① Whom do you want to see?(宾语)
你要找谁?
② Who knocked at the door?(主语)
有谁敲门啊?
(注意)如说“ Who did knock at the door?”便错了。
c. 在用有疑问词的问句中要 do,但在从句中则不要 do,如:
① Where did you buy it?
你在哪里买的?
②Will you tell me where you bought it ?
你可以告诉我你在哪里买的吗?
d. 加强动词的意思时要用 do,如:
①I do hope that you will succeed this time.
我真希望你这次会成功。
②When he does come,he is generally late.
他即令来,也总是到得很迟的。
e. 在倒装语句中要加用助动词:
①Not for a moment did he falter in his purpose.
他的志向坚定不移,一会儿都不动摇。
②He stood still,nor did I move.
他静立,我也不动。
f. 用 do 来做代动词(Pro-Verb),以避免重复使用动词:
①We need not be ashamed if others know more than we do (= know).
如果别人知道得比我们多,我们也用不着羞耻。
②The ostrich does not build a nest as most birds do ,but lay its eggs in the sand.(do = build a nest)
鸵鸟和别的鸟不同,是不筑巢的,它把卵产在沙中。
2. May (后接略去了 to 的不定词)
a. 许可:
① May I swim in this pool?
我可以在此池中游泳吗?
②You may take anything you like.
你喜欢什么就可以拿什么。
b. 可能:
①As it is very cold today,we may have rain tomorrow.
因为今天非常的冷,明天可能下雨。
②Young men may die;old men must.
年轻人也可能死,老年人则必死。
c. 可能不是(加否定用):
The news may not be true.
那新闻可能不是真的。
d. 祈愿:
① May you succeed!
愿你成功!
②Long may live the Republic!
共和国万岁!
e. 目的(连 that 用):
He spoke very slowly that we might understand him better.
他说得很慢,好使我们听懂。
3. Can (后接略去了 to 的不定词)
a. 能够:
①What cannot be cured must be endured.(格言)
不能治好的病只好忍受。
②Never defer till tomorrow what you can do today.
今天能够做的事绝不要拖到明天。
b. 不可能:
①He cannot be over fifty.
他不可能有五十岁以上。
② Can the report be true?
那传说不可能是真的。
c. 可以(= may):
You can go or not,as you like.
你或去或留一任尊便。
(注意)can 不能与 will 或 shall 连用,用时要得将 can 改为 be able to,如:
I shall be able to go abroad.
我将能出洋。
4. Will (后接略去了 to 的不定词)
a. 将来(第二、三人称):
①You will hear from me in a day or two.
一两天之内,你就会接到我的信的。
②He will succeed in his enterprise.
他将在事业上成功。
b. 许诺(第一人称):
I will do exactly as you wish.
我会完全照你的意思做的。
c. 决心(第一、二、三人称):
①I will go,whatever you may say.
不管你怎样说我都要去。
②If you will behave like that,what can you expect?
如果你行为如此,你还期望什么呢?
③He will have things done in the right way.
他一定会把事情做好。
5. Shall (后接略去了 to 的不定词)
a. 将来(第一人称):
I shall be returning to town on Tuesday.
我礼拜二就回到城里来。
b. 许诺(第二、三人称):
①You shall have the goods at once.
你定的货立刻送上。
②He shall not be kept waiting very long.
不会让他久等的。
c. 强迫(第一、二、三人称):
①They say that we shall agree to their terms.
他们说我们非同意他们的条件不可。
②You shall do as I say.
你非得照我说的做不可。
③He shall pay you every cent he owes you.
他借你的钱每个子儿都得还你。
6. Would (后接略去了 to 的不定词)
a. 过去的习惯:
Passers-by would often take pity on this blind beggar and drop coppers into the basket.
路人常要同情这瞎叫花,而丢铜板在篮子里。
b. 坚强的意志(= wish to):
Men who would succeed must be abreast of the times.
想要成功的人必得与时代并进。
c. 愿望(= I wish):
① Would that I were young again.(= I wish I were young again.)但愿青春可再。
② Would I were a bird.(= I wish I were a bird.)我愿做一个小鸟。
d. 选择(加 rather 用):
I would rather die than live without you.
我宁死也不愿失掉你。
e. 过去的决心:
He said he would do his best.(= He said,“I will do my best. ”)他说他一定尽力。
f. 过去的拒绝:
I offered him some money,but he would not take it. 我给他钱,他绝对不受。
7. Should (后接略去了 to 的不定词)
a. 应当(义务):
You should obey your parents.
你应当服从你的父母。
b. 在 lest 之后,无论主句是现在或过去均可:
He works(又 worked)hard lest he should fail.
他很用功,以免失败。
c. 在假定与现在或过去事实相反的条件句的主句中叙述现在所存留的那种结果:
I should not be alive at this moment,if it were not for him.
如果不是他的话,我这时早已没有命了。
d. 在条件句文将前提分句省略,只留下一个归结分句(即主句)时;这常表示客气的说法:
①I should like to ask you to do me a favor.
我想请你帮我一个忙。
②You find her rather troublesome to teach,I should be afraid.——Gissing, Life’s Morning
我恐怕你教她,会感到很麻烦的吧。
③The apple-woman is a hundred,I should think,and yet she is out there when it rains even.
那卖苹果的老太婆恐怕有一百岁了,但是甚至天下着雨她还是要跑出外面来的。
④I should suppose any one would be proud of such a fine thing.
我想任何人对于这样一件好东西,都会觉得骄傲的。
⑤We are pretty good companions,I should say.
我想我们是很好的朋友吧。
e. 在 that 引导的,内容并非事实而全出于想象的从句中,三个人称皆用 should,并无别特意义:
①It is very surprising to me that you should know so little about it.
你对于那事竟不知道,真使我大吃一惊。
②It is better for him that the boy should not be told until he is much older.
等那孩子长大了再告诉他,对他更好。
③After the excitement of the last few days it was natural he should be tired.
在过去几天那般兴奋之后,他当然要感到疲倦的。
④It was right that these problems should have the first consideration.
这个问题要先考虑是对的。
⑤What a pity that a man with so good a heart should be so weak in the head.
那样一个好心肠的人会有这样迟钝的头脑,真是一件遗憾的事。
f. 在表示“决定”“意向”“命令”“建议”等主要从句后所接的 that-clause 中,不论任何人称都用 should:
①It was decided that the wretched hovels should be pulled down and new houses should be built.
决定把破房子拆掉而建筑新房子。
②He was anxious that his son should have a good education.
他切望他的儿子能受到良好的教育。
③The girl made a sign that he should come to her.
那女郎做个手势要他到她跟前去。
④He had ordered that the child should be sent alone into his room.
他命令将孩子一人送回房间去。
⑤After dinner,he proposed that we should smoke in the garden.
饭后他提议我们到花园里去抽烟。
g. 接在过去的主句后的形容词从句中,三个人称都用 should,表示从过去来看未来的:
①He longed for the morning to come,when he should see her again.
他期待着再见到她的早晨到临。
②Alexander hoped to make one mighty empire of the world,in which men of every race should be as brothers.
亚历山大希望把世界做成各民族亲如兄弟一般的一大帝国。
③Napoleon set to work to build a huge fleet which should be able to defeat the British fleet.
拿破仑着手建立一个足以击破英国舰队的强力的舰队。
h. 接在过去的主句后的副词从句中,三个人称都用 should,表示从过去来看未来的:
①She wanted to keep a little shop while her husband should be away.
她打算在丈夫不在家的时候,经营一个小店。
②It was necessary to live his days somehow until death should come.
到死为止总得想办法度日。
③She had to look nice and fresh for her patient;when the next day should start.
在第二天开始的时候,她必得为她的病人们做出新鲜活泼的样子来。
④He ran down lest rain should begin to fall.
他怕下雨匆匆跑下去了。
⑤Hester would not set him free,lest he should look her sternly in the face.——Hawthorne, Scarlet Letter
赫斯脱讨厌他严厉地望着她的脸,所以不放他走。
8. Must (后接略去了 to 的不定词)
a. 强烈的意志:
I must finish this before I go.
在走之前我一定要把这个做完。
b. 推思:
He must be crazy to talk like that.
他一定发了癫,竟说出那样的话。
c. 禁止(与否定连用):
You may look at it,but you must not touch it.
你可以看,但不许动手。
(注意)must 的否定,是 need not,而不是 must not(这是 prohibition 禁止之意)。如 You must pay the money,but you need not do so at once.(你必得还钱,但你不必马上就还)。
9. Ought (后接不略去 to 的不定词)
a. Ought to + 意志动词 = 应当:
You ought to pay back your debts.
你应当偿还你的债务。
b. Ought to + 无意志动词 = 当然:
Such an able man ought to succeed.
那样有能力的人成功是当然的。
10. Need (后接略去了 to 的不定词)
在问句及否定句中作为助动词,用第三人称单数也不加 s(但作为一般动词用时要加 s):
①Why need I hurry?
我为什么要赶紧呢?
②You need not hurry like that.
你用不着那么急。
(注意)He need not work.(助动词)He needs no money.(一般动词)又 need not 的过去,要用 had not to,如:I had not to do it.
11. Dare (后接略去了 to 的不定词)
用法与 need 相同:
①How dare you do such a thing?(问句)
你怎敢做这样的事?
②He dare not speak.(否定句)
他不敢说话。
③I dare say there are mistakes.
大概有错误。(I dare say = probably)
12. Be , Have 也可以作助动词用,be 后接现在分词或过去分词,have 后接过去分词。
13. Used 在问句中也可作助动词用。
Used you to have this sort of thing in your young days?——Galsworthy, Swan Song
你在年轻的时候常做这样的事吗?
14. Come 在问句中也可作助动词用。
①How come you to be rambling about and lose yourself?——Eliot, The Mill on the Floss
你怎样会散步而迷了路的?
②How comes he in such a pickle?
他怎样会遭遇这种困难的?
③But how comes it that such a great gentleman walks?——Fielding, Tom Jones
这样一位伟大的人,怎样会要走路的呢?
(25)三种动状词
英文中有一些字眼,由动词变化而来,有“动词 + 名词”,“动词 + 形容词”,“动词 + 副词”的作用,但不能正式作谓语动词(Predicate Verb)用,这些字眼,便叫作动状词(Verbal)。动状词共分三种,即不定词(Infinitive)、分词(Participle)及动名词(Gerund)。
(1) To obey the laws is your duty.(Infinitive)
(2) Obeying the laws,he lived happily.(Participle)
(3)By obeying the laws you do your duty.(Gerund)
1.“一般的形式”: to + Root-form = Infinitive
不定词头上的这个 to,原来是一个 Preposition,表示与 for 相同的意义,而其后所接的原形动词,那时还是一个名词,意为所做的那回事,后来逐渐失去本意,到现今则只是不定词的一个符号(sign),另无他意了。
2.“不定词的用法”:
(a)用于 Noun 的场合(Noun Infinitive)
(1) To teach is to learn.(Subject)
(2)I like to teach .(Object)
(3)To teach is to learn .(Complement)
〔注〕当不定词用作 Subject 或 Factitive Verb(作为动词,即如 find,make,think 等)的 Object 时,常可用 it 来做形式上的 Subject 或 Object,而把不定词放在后面去,如:
(1) It is never too late to mend .(Subject)
(2) I make it a rule to go out every day.(Object)
又在 Noun Infinitive 之前用有 what 、 how 、 where 等疑问词时,可将它作成 Noun Phrase,如:
(1)He did not know how to swim .(= the way to swim)
(2)I wish I know where to go .(= the place for going)
(3)She scarcely knows what to do .(= what she ought to do)
(b)用于 Adjective 的场合(Adjective Infinitive)
(1)I have no friend to help me.
(2)He has no food to eat .
(3)There is much to enjoy in the life of a sailor.
〔注〕省略了关系代词的时候,Preposition 就要移到不定词的后面去,如:
(1)We need a house to live in .(= in which to live)
(2)He had no money to buy food with .(with which to buy food)
(c)用于 Adverb 的场合(Adverb Infinitive)
① 目的(Purpose)
(1)We have come here to study .(= We have come here for the purpose of studying.)
(2)This water is not good to drink .(= not good for drinking)
〔注〕第一例的不定词是修饰动词 come 的,第二例的不定词是修饰形容词 good 的。这种不定词可用 in order to,so as to 来代替。
I got up early to be in time for the first train.
I got up early in order to be in time for the first train.
I got up early so as to be in time for the first train.
以上都是表“目的”的,如改为下面的说法,便成表“结果”的了。
I got up so early as to be in time for the first train.
I got up so early that I was in time for the first train.
② 结果(Result)
(1)I awoke to find my suitcase gone.(= I awoke and found that my suitcase had gone.)
(2)He rose to his feet again, only to fall as before.
③ 原因(Cause)
在表喜怒哀乐等感情的字眼之后接不定词时,大都是表示原因的。
(1)I am glad to hear of your success.
(2)I was surprised to see such a curious sight.
④ 理由(Reason)
(1)He must be crazy to talk like that.
(2)What a careless person to forget such an important matter.
⑤ 条件(Condition)
I should be very happy to be of any assistance to you in any way. = I should be very happy if I were to be of any assistance to you in any way.
⑥ 程度(Degree)
(1)He is old enough to go to school.
(2)She is too young to marry .
〔注〕上面①至⑤主要是拿不定词来修饰动词或形容词的,⑥便是拿来修饰副词的。
(d)独立的不定词(Absolute Infinitive)
与句中其他的词毫无语法的关系,完全处于独立地位,用来修饰全句的,就叫作独立的不定词。
(1) To tell the truth ,I do not like him.
(2)He is, so to speak ,a book-worm.
(3) To be frank with you ,you are a man of weak will.
(4) To do him justice ,he is not without some merits.
(5)He fell nearly 100 feet;but, strange to say ,the fall did not kill him.
(6) To make the matters worse ,thick sleet was driving across the sea.
(7)He knows German and French,not to mention English.
3.“不定词的时态”:
不定词的 Tense 共有 Simple Infinitive 和 Perfect Infinitive 两种。
(a)Simple Infinitives
不定词用于 seem、appear、be said、be thought 等动词之后时,表示其动作是和其动词同时的,即动词为 Present 的话,其不定词也是 Present,如:
(1)He seems to be rich.(= It seems that he is rich.)
(2)He seemed to be rich.(= It seemed that he was rich.)
(3)He seemed to be studying hard.(= It seemed that he was studying hard.)
又如在 wish、hope、intend、expect、promise 等含有将来之意的动词之后用的不定词,也具有将来的意思,如:
(1)He promises to work hard.(= He says he will work hard.)
(2)I intend to do it.(= I think I will do it.)
(3)I expect him to succeed .(= I think he will succeed.)
(b)Perfect Infinitives
在 seem、appear、be thought 等动词之后,接用完成不定词的时候,就表示是这些动词的时态以前发生的事,或是到那时为止已完成、或经验过、或继续了的动作。
(1)He seems to have been idle.(= It seems that he was 〔or has been 〕idle.)
(2)He seemed to have been idle.(= It seemed that he had been idle.)
在 wish、hope、intend、expect 等的 Past 之后,接用完成不定词时,就表示那希望未成事实。
He expected to come .(实际来了没有不明)
He expected to have come .(实际未能来)
4. for + Object + Infinitive
不定词虽无语法上的主语,却有意味上的主语,如:
I expect to succeed .(= I think I shall succeed .)
I expect him to succeed .(= I think he will succeed .)
在第一句中不定词的意味上的主语,是和全句的主语同一的,所以不写出,但在第二句中不定词的意味上的主语,就不是和全句的主语同一的,而是动词 expect 之宾语的 him,所以这个宾语的 him,就成了不定词的意味上的主语了。在及物动词的场合,就可直接把那不定词意味上的主语作为全句的动词的宾语,但在不及物动词时,就常用 for + object + Infinitive 的形式,如:
(1) For him to fail to come would be fatal to our plan.(名词的用法)
(2)It was an easy thing for Lord Byron to be a great poet.(名词的用法)
(3)She held the baby up for them to see .(副词的用法)
(4)It is time for us to be up and doing.(形容词的用法)
5. 不定词的 to 的记号,有时可以略去 。用在动词 see、hear、feel、find、make、let、have、observe、watch、notice、please 等等之后,便是如此,如:
(1)I never saw any one cry for joy before.
(2)I have never heard her sing.
(3)I feel the cold air strike against my face.
(4)I made him come and sit beside me.
(5)I will have him come at once.
(6)I let him go back to his own house.
(7) Please have a seat.
〔注〕这些动词如果改为 Passive 时,to 便不能省略。
I saw the dog run .(Active)
The dog was seen to run .(Passive)
6. 在 than 后的不定词:
普通在主句中的不定词省略了 to 的话,在 man 后从句中的不定词也要将 to 省略,反之亦然,不过例外很多,尤其是前后两个不定词意义相反,成为对照的时候,例如:
(1)It is better to whistle than whine ;
It is better to laugh than to cry ;
For though it be cloudy,the sun will soon shine
In the blue,beautiful sky.
(2)I can do no otherwise than laugh .
7. 不定词略去 to 的惯用句 :
(1)I could not but feel sorry for what you had said.
(2)You had better not work after you have tired yourself.
(3)It’s nearly one,and we had best get a few hours’ sleep.
(4)I had rather be a doorkeeper in the house of Lord,than dwell in the tents of wickedness.
(5)I would rather walk than run.
(6)He does nothing but study.
8. 不定词不略去 to 的惯用句:
(1)All you have to do is to try hard.(= All you must do)
(2)In order to know a man,you have only to travel with him for a week.
(3)We are to meet again on Sunday evening.(= It is fixed that we shall meet again...)
(4)Not a star was to be seen in the sky.(= could be seen)
(5)Many hardships are to be endured .(= must be endured)
(6)I am going to tell you about that person.
(7)I am about to start on a trip to Europe.
1. 分词有现在分词 (Present Participle) 和过去分词 (Past Participle) 两种 ,都是作为形容词用的。
2. 形容词与分词的异同。
作为名词的修饰语,紧接在其前或后的附加的用法,又作为主语的补语或宾语的补语时的叙述的用法,二者是完全相同的。
(1)There are a lot of beautiful flowers in it.(Adjective)
(2)In some parts of the country,there is not much flowing water .(Participle)
但分词是兼有“动词 + 形容词”的作用,所以具有动词的种种特色,可以加用宾语、补语或副词,又具有 Tense 和 Voice。它虽无语法上的主语,却有意味上的主语,形容词便不能如此。这便是分词和形容词不同的地方。
(1)This is a chart showing the results of the examination in English.(下接宾语的)
(2)The weather being fine ,the party was held in the garden.(下接补语的)
(3) Walking rapidly ,she reached the gates of the Hall.(下接副词的)
(4)I have received a letter written in English .(下接副词短语的)
(5) Being written in an easy style,the book was adapted for beginners.(被动语态)
(6) Having been there once before,I had no difficulty in finding his house.(完成时分词)
(7)I am sorry to have kept you waiting so long.(Sense-Subject)
(8)This is the camera given me by my uncle.(Sense-Subject)
3. 分词的用法:
(a)现在分词是用作 Progressive Form 的,而过去分词则是用作 Passive Voice 和 Perfect Tense 的。
(b)分词用作形容词的场合,现在分词含有 Active,过去分词含有 Passive 之意。
(1)Men living in town do not know rural pleasure.(= Men who live in town...)(Active)
(2)This is a house built some hundred years ago.(= This is a house which was built some...)(Passive)
(3) Rolling stones gather no moss.(Active)
(4)There were some distinguished men among the guests.(Passive)
〔注〕不及物动词的过去分词用作名词的修饰语法时,已无“被动”之意,仅作“已经”解释而已,如: sunken rocks, fallen trees, withered flowers。
(c) 用以缩短副词从句:
(1)Time(时间)
Walking along the street,he met an old friend.(= When he was walking along the street,...)
(2)Cause or Reason(原因或理由)
Living so remote from town,I rarely have visitors.(= As I live so remote from town...)
(3)Condition(条件)
Turning to the right,you will find the house you want.(= If you turn to the right,...)
(4)Concession(让步)
Admitting what you say,I still think you made a mistake.(= Though I admit what you say,...)
(5)Connection(连续)
The flames rose higher and higher, throwing their light far and wide.(= The flames rose higher and higher,and threw their light...)
(6)The boy, having been praised ,worked the harder.(= The boy,as he had been praised,worked the harder.)
以上所举各例,都是副词从句的 Subject 和分词从句的 Subject 为同一的场合,才可以这样换用的。又主句的主语为名词时,用分词开始的短语,置于主语的前后都可以,但主语如为代词时,就只能置于主语之前,不能置于主语之后。例如:
Hearing a footstep outside,the burglar at once ran away. 或 The burglar , hearing a footstep outside,at once ran away.(主语的名词)
Having finished my home task of algebra,I went out for a walk.(主语的代词)
〔注意〕第二例不能说成 I,having finished...,went out for a walk. 因为主语是代词。
又两个分句如果主语不同的话,改成分词后仍须保留其主语,以构成独立结构(Absolute Construction)。因为独立分词(Absolute Participle)虽无语法上的主语,却有意味上的主语,即 Sense-Subject,它和主句的主语不是同一的,所以不能共用而将此省略,例如 When the sun had set, we started for home. 一句,其副词从句中的主语为 the sun,其主句中的主语为 we,二者并非同一,若改为独立构造时,两个主语都得保存,即 The sun having set ,we started for home. 兹再举一个 Sense-Subject 的例如下:
The teacher absenting himself,there was no school.(= As the teacher absented himself,there was no school.)
另外还有一种略去 Sense-Subject 的独立分词的例:
(1) Strictly speaking ,this is not correct.(= If we speak strictly,this is,...)
(2) Talking of steamers,how many have we in our country?(= Now that we are talking of steamers,how many...)
(3) Assuming that he had some excuse,he still acted harshly.(= Though we assume that he...)
(4) Judging from his accent,he seems to be a man from Kwangtung.(= If we judge from his accent...)
分词可以表示现在也可表示过去,全依后面主句的动词时态而定:
Living (= As I live )so remote from town,I rarely have visitors.
Living (= As I lived )so remote from town,I rarely had visitors.
Having lived (= As he has lived )abroad,he is proficient in English.
Having lived (= As he had lived )abroad,he was proficient in English.
(d)分词用于补语的场合:
1. 主语的补语(Subjective Complement)
a. Present Participle:
(1)He went begging from door to door.
(2)She stood gazing at the scene.
b. Past Participle:
(1)He died loved by all.
(2)Soon it became known to the villagers.
2. 宾语的补语(Objective Complement)
a. Present Participle:
(1)He kept me waiting .
(2)I found my friend sleeping on a rock.
b. Past Participle:
(1)She wept to see him killed .
(2)I had my shoes stolen .
(e)关于分词的特别用法:
1. have ... Past Participle
(1)I had my purse stolen in the bus last night.
(2)I had my foot severely trodden upon in the car.
(3)He had his arm sprained .
〔注〕这种 Passive 都是无意志的,所以是单纯的“被动”,如果加入意志进去,就变成“使动”了。
2. Get ... Past Participle
(1)He has got a new house built .(使动)
(2)He got (= had)his arm broken .(被动)
(3)I must get my work finished by the evening.(做完)
1. 动名词(Gerund)和现在分词同形,但兼有动词和名词的双重性质所以可代 Noun 用,而分词是兼有动词和形容词的双重性质,所以可代 Adjective 用。
Who is the man reading at the table?(分词)
He spends most of his time in reading .(动名词)
在第一句中作分词用的 reading = that is reading,是 man 的形容词,在第二句中作动名词用的 reading,只是“读书那回事”,而且是介词 in 的宾语。
动名词虽说可代 Noun 用,但它究竟与 Noun 有别。
A. 动名词是有“动词 + 名词”性质的,所以在其后面可接“宾语”、“补语”或“副词”,普通的名词便办不到。
(1) Doing nothing is doing ill .(加宾语)
(2)He is proud of his son being a clever boy .(加补语)
(3)He excused himself for coming late .(加副词)
(4)Excuse me for not having answered your letter at once .(加副词短语)
B. 动名词既有动词的性质,所以它有 Tense 和 Voice,普通的名词便没有。
(1)I am sorry for having broken the glass.(完成时态)
(2)I just missed being run over.(被动语态)
C. 在 Gerund 之外,又还有一种 Verbal Noun,是和 Gerund 同形的,但用法却不同,不仅在其前可加冠词或形容词,其本身上也可加 s 作成复数,但不能如 Gerund 一样伴用宾语、补语或副词。
在1. 的 a. 句中的 early 是副词,修饰 Gerund 的 rising 的,在 b. 句中的 early 是形容词,修饰 Verbal Noun 的 rising 的,在2. 的 a. 句中的 novels 为 writing 的宾语,所以这个 writing 为 Gerund,在 b.句中的 writing 前加有冠词,又伴有 of novels 的形容词短语,所以是 Verbal Noun。
2. 动名词既能有 Noun 的作用所以它可作主语、宾语及补语用。
(1) Sleeping is necessary to life.(主语)
(2) Seeing is believing .(主语和补语)
(3)I like sleeping in the open air.(动词的宾语)
(4)I am fond of sleeping .(介词的宾语)
由于用的动词不同,后面有的要接动名词,有的要接不定词,有的二者都可以接,如:
(1)I like getting ( to got )up early.
(2)I don’t care to go abroad.
(3)Would you mind shutting the window?
(4)I forbid you to smoke .
(5)The law prohibits minors from smoking .
(6)Illness prevented me from attending school.
(7)I could hardly keep from smiling .
(8)I have not quite finished packing yet.
(9)I stopped (= ceased from) smoking .(戒烟)
(10)I stopped (= halted) to smoke. (= in order to smoke. 抽烟)
又 Gerund 可作介词的宾语,而 Infinitive 则不可,如 He has come to Taiwan with the object of seeing (不能说 to see)sights.
3. 动名词虽无明确的 Tense,但从前后的关系可以判断。
(1)I have no doubt of your succeeding .(= I have no doubt that you will succeed .)
(2)I am sure of your being able to solve this question.(= I am sure that you are able to solve this question.)
(3)I am sure of his having said so.(= I am sure that he has said 〔或 said〕 so.)
(4)I was not aware of his being such a rich man.(= I was not aware that he was such a rich man.)
(5)He denied having done it.(= He denied that he had done it.)
4. 动名词的 Sense-Subject。
(1)I regret having said so.(= I regret I said〔have said〕so.)
(2)I regret his having said so.(= I regret that he said 〔has said〕so.)
用动名词来缩短的分句中,主语如系有生物时,就要加所有格的 s,无生物时便不要加 s,如
(1)His father’s being rich is known to all.(= That his father is rich is known to all.)
(2)I am glad of examination being over.(= I am glad that the examination is over.)
5. 关于动名词的主要成语。
(1) There is no going out in such dirty weather.(= It is impossible to go out in...)
(2) On waking up ,he saw that another caravan had arrived.
(3) It is no use complaining .(= It is of no use to complain.)
(4)Let us go boating together this afternoon.
(5)The place is worth visiting .
(6)It is worth your while to visit the place.
(7)He adorned the walls with pictures of his painting .(= He adorned the walls with pictures painted by himself .)
(8) I came near being drowned .(= I was nearly drowned.)
(9) I felt like crying .(= I felt inclined to cry.)
(26)being 的用法
莎士比亚的名句:“To be,or not to be,that is the question. ”初学者对于这个 be 的意思,很难捉摸。其实这并不是晦涩难于理解的。原因只在我们把它的基本意义忽视了。Be 的原义是“存在”,这点应该牢记。Be 加上-ing 之后,这基本意义,来得更加显明。许多学生说他们一直读到大学,对于 being 的意义和用法,还是弄不清楚,也只是因为忽略了这基本意义的缘故。进行时中用 being,表示“正在”,不也是这意义的应用吗?
现在我想拿 being 这个字做个代表,来看看这-ing 形式的字,到底有些什么用法。我们只消把这个 being 的各种用法完全弄明白,对于其他一切动词加-ing 的用法,也就再不会有什么疑问了。
Being 的用法一共可以分成五个项目,我们不妨举例说明。
(1)作为名词(Verbal Noun):
After all,man is a selfish being .(人毕竟是自私的。)
This is some strange being .(这是一个怪物。)
〔注〕这个 being 的用法完全与名词无异,前面可以加冠词,本身又可以加-s 做成复数,如 human beings。在下二项中,则 being 不能加 -s 做成复数。
(2)作为被动的动名词(Passive Gerund):
I don’t mind being laughed at.(我不在乎别人笑骂。)
Being made a fool of is no proof that one is a fool.(被人愚弄的,并不见得就是愚人。)
〔注〕在这用法中可注意的,就是在 being 这个名词之后,一定接上一个过去分词,以构成被动的成分。
(3)作为完全的动名词(Perfect Gerund):
She is proud of being the mother of eight children.(她很骄傲她是八个孩子的母亲。)
He knew that being punctual meant being on the point of time.(他知道准时到达就是守时。)
〔注〕这个 being 虽然也是用作名词,但后面并不接有过去分词,所以其中不包含被动性。
(4)作为形容词(Qualificative Adjective):
He serves on trial for the time being .(他暂时是试用性质。)
His clothing being in shreds,he presented a sorry sight.(他衣衫褴褛,现出一副可怜相。)
〔注〕这个 being 既非名词,也非动词,而是形容词,第一例句形容“时间”,第二例句形容“衣服”。
(5)作为现在分词(Present Participle):
He was being held prisoner in the Legation.(他正被囚禁在公使馆里。)
The work is being done.(这工作正在进行。)
〔注〕这个 being 之后虽然也是接有过去分词,但 being 是动词的一部分,表示进行时。
(27)形容词用法
形容词是用来形容名词的字眼,它有两种用法,一是置于名词之前的“附加的用法”,一是作为动词补语的“叙述的用法”。
He is the greatest conquerer who has conquered himself.
曾克服了自己的人是最伟大的克服者。(附加的用法)
Happy is the man who sees his folly in his youth.
在青年时代便已看出自己的愚行的人是幸福的。(叙述的用法)
形容词既有各种各样,同置于名词之前,谁先谁后,颇费斟酌,兹就通常的用法,定出顺序如下。
① 指示形容词或冠词,② 数量,③ 性质,④ 大小,⑤ 新旧,⑥ 形状,⑦ 颜色,⑧ 材料。
There are many ② big ④ white ⑦ birds on the pond.
A ① pickpocket robbed me of my ① new ⑤ gold ⑧ watch.
The ① lion is a ① wild ③ animal.
I bought an ① old ⑤ square ⑥ table at that ① store.
如果同一类的形容词用了好几个的话,就把音节少的词置于前面,或是看怎样念来顺口地排列。用二词时中加 and,三词以上用逗号隔开,只在最后一个形容词前才加用 and,有时不加 and 也可以。
The people of Switzerland were not always free and happy .
How good it was,in the hot summer days,to drink the clear , cold , sparkling water from the well!
形容词通常是置于名词之前,但在下列四种情形时,则又置于名词之后:
形容词可分为性质形容词(Qualifying Adjective)、数量形容词(Quantitative Adjective)和代名形容词(Pronominal Adjective)三种。如 wise、idle、blue、old、gold、wooden、European 等为性质形容词,many、much、few、little、some、all、first、second 等,为数量形容词,而 this、that、such、the、same、some、any、each、every、both、what、which、my、your 等,则为代名形容词。
“性质形容词”是表示性质或状态的,它又可分为:
1. 固有形容词(Proper Adjective)。
这是由固有名词做成的,首字必须大写,如 The Chinese flag、the English language、the French people。但地名可不变形即作形容词用,如 a London paper、a Taipei man、 China tea。
2. 物质形容词(Material Adjective)。
这是由物质名词做成的,有时用原形,有时加 -en。如 a gold watch、a silver medal、an iron will、a brick building 及 the golden age、a golden opportunity、a wooden house、 woolen goods、 earthen ware 等等。
3. 动词形容词(Verbal Adjective)。
这是由动词做成的,可分现在分词和过去分词两种。
a. 现在分词(Present Participle):
Close to the meadows is a shining river.
The rising sun,a flying bird,an interesting book,a puzzling question,a rolling stone.
b. 过去分词(Past Participle)
The king carried the wounded man into the hut.
A broken watch、a learned man、 lost time、 sunken eyes、 withered flowers.
4. 副词也可用作形容词,如 an up -train、a down train、a through train、the house here 、the people there 、the above address、the then premier。
“数量形容词”分不定数量(Indefinite)形容词及数词(Numeral)两种。不定数的形容词有 many、few、a few、some、all 等,不定量的形容词有 much、little、a little、some、all 等。数词则又分基数(Cardinal),如 one、two、three、four;序数(Ordinal),如 first、second、third;及倍数(Multiplicative),如 half、double、twice。
A. 不定数量形容词的用法。
① many 和 much :many 是表“数”的,与复数普通名词连用,而 much 是表“量”的,与物质名词或抽象名词连用,例如:
Many men are poor.(复数普通名词)
Much rain has fallen.(物质名词)
He has much knowledge of English.(抽象名词)
又有 many a 的说法,是加强语气的,many a man(is)= many men(are)。例如 Many a father has learned to his sorrow,what it is to have a boy idle.(许多父亲深知养子不教结果可悲。)
此外在 many 或 much 之前,又可加 as 或 so,即 as many 为“同数的”,as much 为“同量的”,so many 及 so much 用于不定的数量,例如:
I found six mistakes in as many lines.
When he was sentenced to death,he seemed as calm as if he had expected as much .
Apples are sold at so many for a dollar.
This article is sold at so much a catty.
但 so many 用于 as、like 之后时,与 as many(同数的)同义,如 The boys climbed the trees like so many monkeys.
② few 和 a few ; little 和 a little :few、a few 是表“不定数”的,通常接复数普通名词,而 little、a little 则是表“不定量”的,通常接物质名词或抽象名词。在 few 或 little 之前加用 a 时,意为“稍有”,不加 a 时意为“几无”,例如:
There are few grammatical mistakes in your composition.(你的作文“差不多没有”语法上的错误。)
I have little money left.(存款所余无几)。
Not a few boats have been sunk by the storm.(暴风沉船“不少”。)
He has made not a little money on account of the business activity.(因为生意兴隆他赚钱“不少”。)
Please stay with us a few days more.(请跟我们多住几天。)
There is a little hope in the enterprise.(那事业有一点儿希望。)
③ several :三四个乃至五六个的意思,比 a few 要多数些。
They have collected several kinds of tropical trees,I hear.(听说他们搜集好几种热带植物。)
④some、any、no、all 这些不定数量形容词的用法,容在代名形容词的用法中说明。
B. 数词的用法。
① 基数:关于基数应注意事项,分述如下:
a. 要注意拼写的变化,如“四”及“十四”都有 u(four、fourteen),但“四十”便无 u(forty)。
b. 在二十以上十位数上加一位数时,先加短划(-),再加 one、two、three 等词。
c. 在 hundred 后再接数字时,必须加用 and(在 thousand 后如无 hundred 时同样),如
200——two hundred
250——two hundred and fifty
2245——two thousand two hundred and forty-five
2060——two thousand and sixty
234,567,898——two hundred and thirty-four million,five hundred and sixty-seven thousand,eight hundred and ninety-eight
d. 年号有三种读法,但以第一种为最普遍。
e. 在 hundred、thousand 之前,即便有 two,three 等多数的数字,也不说 two hundreds 或 three thousands,只有在说几百、几千的不定数时才加 s,如 hundreds of people(好几百人)、thousands of students(好几千学生)、hundreds of thousands(几十万)等。
f. million 之前加有一定的数字,而其后接有名词时,仍不要加 s,只有在后面不接名词时才用复数。
three million men
three millions of men
g. 基数作名词用时也可以加 s,例如:
There are three twos in six.
The boys went out by twos .
She married while still in her teens .
He is a young officer in his twenties .
② 序数:
a. 应注意拼写及发音。
first(1st),second(2nd),third(3rd),fourth(4th),fifth(5th),sixth(6th),seventh(7th), eighth (8th), ninth (9th),tenth(10th),eleventh(11th), twelfth (12th), twentieth (20th),twenty-first(21st).
eighth 的发音为〔eitθ〕,twentieth 的发音为〔twentiiθ〕。写略字时,应注意 st,nd,rd,th 的分别,如
11th,12th,13th,14th
21st,22nd,23rd,24th
31st,32nd,33rd,34th
b. 在序数前必得加定冠词 the,但如所加者为不定词 a 时,则不是表顺序,而是表 another 之意。
This is the first time I have heard of it.
One was deaf,another was blind,and a third was lame.
c. 有时可将基数代序数用。
No. 1(Number one)= The first
Book Two = The Second Book
World War Ⅱ = The Second World War
George V = George the Fifth
下列各点,附记于此,以资参考。
·April 12th,读时应读 April the twelfth。
·公元说基数,年号说序数,如1955 = nineteen fifty-five;“中华民国”三十四年 = the thirty-fourth year of the Republic of China。
·年龄有各种说法,如 I am twenty year old;I am twenty years of age;I am in my twentieth year。
·货币等的读法,如$2.35 = two dollars thirty-five cents;£ 2 5s 2d = two pounds,five shillings and two pence;90° = ninety degrees;4. 30 p. m. train = four thirty p m train;Telephone No. 1203 = one two naught three。
·分数是分子用基数,分母用序数,当分子在 two 以上时,分母的序数要再加 s,如
⅓ = a third 或 one third
⅔ = two thirds
2 ⅔ = two and two thirds
¼ = a quarter
¾ = three quarters
·加减乘除的说法:
Two and (plus)three is (或 are)five.
Three from (minus)five is two.
Three times four is (或 are)twelve.
Fifteen divided by three equals five.
d. first 作副词用,有下列各种说法:
The king arrived first ,and next came his retinue.
He first went to Paris,and then to London.
I found English difficult at first ,but I liked it from the first .
He was only ten years of age when he went to America for the first time .
e. 基数上加用 first 或 last 时。
Please look over the first two chapters.(指同一本书中头两章。)
Compare the two first chapters.(两本不同的书中第一章。)
Examination will be held on the last two days of this month.(最后两天。)
③ 倍数:
a. double 有“二重”或“二倍”之意,单复名词前皆可用。
He has the double capacity of preacher and teacher.(二重资格)
On Sunday,we have to pay double the usual fare.(二倍票价)
b. half 可用在冠词之前或后,如 half a mile; half an hour;two hours and a half ;She repaid him half the total sum 。
c. 除 once(= one time),twice(= two times),及间或用 thrice(= three times)外,三倍以上通常都说 three times,four times 等。
The oysters in which pearls are found are twice the size of those used for food.
This is half as large as that.(一半大)
This is half as much again as that.(一倍半)
This is twice and a half as heavy as that.(二倍半)
They have three times as many ships as we have.(多三倍)
The earth is forty-nine times as large as the moon.(大四十九倍)
〔注意〕与倍数连用的比较字为 as...as,而不是 more 或 -er...than,我们若说“China is twenty times larger than Japan. ”就错了,应改为“China is twenty times as large as Japan. ”才对。
“代名形容词”是具有代词的性质的,可分下列四种:
1. Possessive(所有)
2. Demonstrative(指示)
3. Interrogative(疑问)
4. Relative(关系)
①所有代名形容词。
This is my dictionary.
That is your dictionary.
Those are their books.
②指示代名形容词。
a. such :在单数普通名词前用 such a 或 such an,但在复数普通名词或在抽象名词前,就单用 such,如:
We had never witnessed such an interesting game.(单普)
There are many such men .(复普)
I have never heard such music in my life.(抽象)
b. the same :加强语气时还可说 the very same。
These are all(of) the same prices.
The girl was born on the very same day that he returned.
c. some :表不定数时接复数普通名词,表量时接物质名词。有时 some 又可接抽象名词用。
The custom is still observed in some places .(复普)
Give me some water .(物质)
This operation requires some skill .(抽象)
用于单数普通名词前,some 表不定之意,如 He is suffering from some disease.(他害着什么病。) Some student must have written it.(一定是那个学生写的。)I will tell you some day next week.(下星期哪一天我告诉你。)
此外,some 还有下面几种用法:
Some fish can fly.(有的鱼能飞。)
He owes me some 200 dollars.(他欠我二百元光景。)
You like some tea?(你要点茶吗?)
d. any :some 是用于肯定句的;否定句、疑问句及条件句就用 any,对于数或量皆可。
Have you any letters or telegrams for me?(疑问句)
Yes,we have some letters.(肯定句)
No,we have not any (= no)telegrams.(否定句)
If any friends should call,I would see them.(条件句)
如果把 any 用于肯定的叙述句中,即表示“无论何人、何处、何事”之意,单复数都可用。
Any man could do that.
You may take any books that you like best.
e. some 和 certain :
①He is reading some novel.
②He is reading a certain novel.
第一句意为他在读小说,什么小说不明;第二句的意思则为,说话的人是知道他在读的是什么小说的,不过没有说出的必要,或是不欲说出时,便只说“某某小说”。
f. any 和 either :either 为二者之一,any 为三者以上的人或物中间的一个。
Any pen will do.(任何一支笔都行。)
Either pen will do.(两支笔中哪支都行。)
这个 either 除二者之一(one of two)的意思外,还有两个(each of two)的意思,如 There are trees on either side(= both sides)of the river. 又作“也”解时肯定句用 too,否定句用 either,如
I have seen him too .
I have not seen him either .
g. any 和 every :any 普通与表示“动作”的动词连用,多指“未来”而言;every 接单数名词,比 all 的意思更强,与表示状态的动词连用,多指“现在”及“过去”而言。every 不可作代词用。
Any boy can solve such an easy problem.(谁都可以)
Every man has his weak side.(人人都有弱点。)
又 not any 是三个以上“全部否定”,与 no 或 none 同义,not every 是“部分否定”,与 very few 或 some 同义。
I do not want any money.(= I want no money.)(完全不要)
Every man can not be a poet.(= Very few can be poets.)(未必人人能成诗人。)
误:He can teach everything .( all at a time)
正:He can teach anything .( one at a time)
误: Anyone can not understand him.
正: No one can understand him.
h. every 和 each :every 是“全部都”之意,比 all 或 each 的意义皆强;each 是“各个”之意。
Every dog has its day.(所有的狗)
Each country has its own customs.(各国)
关于 every 的常用词句,尚有 every day(每天),every other day(隔日),every three days(三天一次),every seven days 或 every seventh day(每隔七日),every now and then(时常)。
i. another:
Have another cup of coffee.(one more)
That is quite another matter.(different)
To know is one thing,to teach is another .
One man’s meat is another man’s poison.
j. every 和 all :all 是接复数普通名词的,冠词或代词要置于与名词之间;every 是接单数普通名词的,比 all 的意思更强。
All the sailors got on board the ship.
Every sailor has a knife.
All of us are happy.
We are all happy.
Every one of us is happy.
k. all 和 both :all 是用于三者以上,both 是用于二者或双方的。all 后接复数普通名词、物质名词或抽象名词时,表数量的整体。后接单数普通名词或固有名词时,表 whole 之意。
All boys like play.(比说 Boys like play 意强)(复普)
He has run through all his money.(物质)
Pines are green all the year round.(单普)
Keelung is the best sea-port in all Taiwan.(单固)
Both his parents are dead.
All the students did not go.(不是全体都去)
No student went.(全都未去)
Both his parents are not living.(不是双方都在)
Neither of his parents is living.(双方都不在)
又 not all 为“部分否定”,如果是全部否定就用 not any,又 not both 是“部分否定”,即 one 之意,双方都否定时则用 not either。
Not all good men will prosper, nor will all bad men fail.(善人未必皆繁昌,恶人未必皆败亡。)
Both his brothers are not diligent.(他两兄弟并非都用功。)(即有一个不用功)
关于 all 的常用字句,尚有:
If you do it at all ,do it well.(条件句)(要做就好好地做。)
Are you going to do it at all ?(疑问句)(你到底要不要做?)
Do not do it at all .(否定句)(一点也不要去做。)
For all (或 With all )his wealth,he is not a happy man.(他虽富而不幸福。)
He was all but drowned.(他几乎溺死。)
After all ,it does not matter to us whether we win or not.(毕竟,我们胜败都无关系。)
③疑问代名形容词。
What color is her new dress?
Which way shall we take?
④关系代名形容词。
What money (= all the money that)we had with us barely sufficed for our railway fares.
He spoke to me in German, which language I do not understand.
(28)比较的法则
形容词的比较(Comparison),分原级、比较级和最高级三种。原级是用形容词本来的写法,比较级是单音节及少数常用的二音节词加 -er,或三音节以上的词在词前加 more,最高级是单音节及少数常用的二音节词加 -est,或三音节以上的词在词前加 most,但这里所谓二音节词,是说原来的词,前面加的接前缀是不计算在内的。又单辅音前面的元音如读短音时,在加 -er 或 -est 之前,应将其辅音重复一下。
1. 比较级与最高级的构成法。
a. 单音节词:
b. 二音节词:
其他如 polite、profound、secure、precise、concise、abrupt、sincere、severe、common、cruel、wicked、pleasant、quiet、handsome 等等。
c. 加接前缀的二音节词:
d. 多音节词:
凡词尾有 ful、less、able、ive、ing 的二音节词或多音节词,如 useful、famous、careless、interesting 等,都属于此类。
e. 不规则变化:
2. 比较级的用法。
a. 用于二人或二物的比较,通常加用 than。
(1)A good friend is better than a near relation.
(2)His nose is much wider than that of a dog,but he has smaller ears than some dogs.
上举的例(1)是在比较级后没有名词的,但例(2)便是有 ear 一个名词,这个名词是复数,故不用冠词,如系单数,在比较级的形容词前,就要冠以 a 或 an,如在比较级之后用有 of the two 的字眼,则前面要用 the,如:
(1)Henry is smaller than Frank.
(2)Henry is a smaller boy than Frank.
(3)Henry is the smaller boy of the two .
第一句的 better 为形容词,后略去一个名词(season);第二句的 better 为副词。
又 He is three years younger than I. =
He is younger than I by three years .
b. 普通的比较都是说“优于”或“多于”的,如果是“劣于”或“少于”时,就不问音节的多少,都是用 less(least)。
(1)Chen is less clever than Wang.
(2)Lee is the least clever of the three.
不过一般说话不大喜欢用这种向下的比较,所以与其说“His elder sister is less beautiful than his younger sister.”不如说“His elder sister is not so beautiful as his younger sister. ”或是说“His younger sister is more beautiful than his elder sister. ”。
c. 绝对比较级。
(1)The greater part of my apple apple trees trees have no fruit this year.
(2)These toys are meant for older children.
(3)The old linen-weaver in the neighboring parish of Tarley being dead,his handicraft made him a highly welcome settler to the richer housewives of the district,and even to the more provident cottagers,who had their little stock of yarn at the year’s end.——Eliot, Silas Marner
d. 有一种来自拉丁文的比较,如 superior、inferior、prior、senior、junior 等;后面不接 than,而要接 to,例如:
(1)This book is superior to (= better than)the other in style.
(2)This article is inferior to (= worse than)the sample.
注意:动词 prefer 也属于这一类,后要接 to。
3. 最高级的用法。
a. 在最高级的形容词上,要加 the 的:
(1)Still waters are the deepest .
(2)The elephant is the largest land animal.
(3)China is the greatest of( or among)these powers.
(4)China is the greatest power among them.
注意:在最高级之后接有名词时,通例不用 of,而用 among(后接复数名词)或 in(后接单数名词),如 He is the biggest boy in his class. 或 He is the biggest boy among them.
在最高级的前面用有 one of 或 among 时,并非专指某人,而是泛说的,不过此种情形最高级的名词一定是复数的,如
(2)Shanghai is among the greatest cities in the world.
b. 在最高级的形容词上,不要加 the 的:
(1) Most people are aware of the fact.
(2)Who has most books?
(3)Who made fewest mistakes?
(4)The island is loveliest at night.
(5)He is my greatest friend.
(6)O dearest one,when shall we see you again?
(7)With earliest day I was up.——Brontê, Jane Eyre
(8)“Is it so,Emily?” he asked,with deepest tenderness.—Gissing, Life’s Morning
注意:最高级有时可加一个 even,如 By the law of nature the stream will run down,and the strongest man cannot stop it. = ...and even the strongest men ...
c. 绝对最高级。
(1)The dog would lie at his feet,looking up into his face,following with keenest interest each fleeting expression.——London, Call of the Wild
(2)I should be ashamed the longest day I lived.——Gissing, The House of Cobwebs
(3)She bursts into tears,declaring herself the wretchedest , the most deceived , the worst-used of women.——Dickens, Our Mutual Friend
(4)The Germans are a most thorough and painstaking people in all their undertakings.
(注)以上这种 Absolute Superlative,并无多数事物相比较的意味,而大致是等于 very + 原级。
d. 最高级作为名词用(绝对最高级的一种)。
(1)Let us do our best (= utmost).
(2)Malthus calls it the survival of the fittest .
(3)His style is of the clearest .
(4)She was looking her best that day.
(5)The cherry-blossoms are now at their best .
(6)Here was overcrowded England,at its most dismal .——Galsworthy, Silver Spoon
(7)He tried his hardest to persuade them to buy the picture.
(8)After the cold of the night the birds were singing their clearest in the sunshine.——Galsworthy, Captures
(9)He did not run,but he walked his hardest .——Galsworthy, White Monkey
(10)He breathed his last .
其他如 at best、at last、at most、at least、at the latest、in the least、to make the most of、to make the best of、to make the best of a bad bargain、to make the best of one’s way 等等,都属于这一类。
e. 用比较级来表示最高级的意味。
He is more diligent than any other boy in the class. = He is the most diligent boy in the class.
注意:other 一词不可少,如果单说 any boy,则他本人也包括在 any 之内,自己与自己比较,岂不是笑话,所以一定要说 any other boy。这后面的名词可单可复,如果 any 后不用 other,就一定要在那名词后加限制的形容词句,如
(1)The Mississippi is longer than any other river in the world.
(2)The Mississippi is longer than any river in China.
f. 在比较级上加否定词也可表示最高级的意味。
Nothing is more precious than time,yet nothing is less valued. = Time is the most precious ,yet it is least valued.
g. 仅有叙述用法(Predicative use)的形容词,是不加 er 或 est 的,而要用 more 或 most,如
He was more fond of her than her sister.
The boy was more aware of the danger than the girls.
h. 在修饰法时要用 er 或 est 的形容词,变成叙述用法时,就多半要用 more 或 most 了,如
(1)He was far more sad than she was.
(2)I shall be most happy to do so.
(3)If I had been less cautious I might have been more wise .——Doyle, Memoirs
(4)He was more clever and cold than they were.
(5)He looked more good than ever.
i. 有时为语调的关系,甚至同时二者并用的也有。
(1)We two grew dearer and yet more dear to each other.——Haggard, She
(2)He was the sternest and most severe of masters.——Dickens, David
(3)The coffins are something narrower and more shallow than they used to be.——Dickens, Oliver Twist
j. 在口语中哪怕是说二者的比较,也常用最高级。
(1)The part was certainly in the best hands of the two.——Austen, Mansfield Park
(2)She expects me to go to her,instead of her coming to me!And yet who’s the busiest ?——Bennett, Old Wives’ Tale
k. 再要加强比较级或最高级的意味时,就用 much 或 far 等副词。
(1)Gold is much more valuable than silver.
(2)He is much the best student in the class.
(3)The air is far hotter today than yesterday.
此外又可用 by far the better,by far the best,the very best 等,如
(1)In the village the money-lender is by far the most powerful man .
(2)I did the very best I could.
l. 类似单词及短语用法辨异。
(1)elder,eldest;older,oldest.
His elder brother is two years older than I.
(2)later,latest;latter,last.
This is the latest news.(time)
This is the last boy in the class.(position)
He came later than I expected.
A man and a dog turned up. The latter was a Pekinese.
(3)nearest,next.
This street is the nearest to my house.(空间或距离)
This house is next to mine.(顺序或位置)
(4)farther,farthest;further.
Our school is farther from the city than yours.(距离)
I have something to say further .(更加)
(5)last,next.
He fell ill on Sunday last .
He fell ill last Sunday.
Our athletic meet will be held on Friday next .
Our athletic meet will be held next Friday.
(6)not more than,no more than.
not less than,no less than.
He has not less than $1,000.(= $1,000 or more)
He has no less than $1,000.(= just as much or many as)
He has not more than $1,000.(= only about)
He has no more than $1,000.(= just)
(7)no more than,not any more than.
A home without love is no more a home than a body without a soul is a man.
You can not injure such a man any more than you can throw a stone at the sun.
(29)副词的用法
用来修饰动词、形容词或其他副词的,就叫作副词。有时副词也可用来修饰名词、或代词、从句或整个的句子,例如:
He lives comfortably on his pension.(动词)
The weather is very fine today.(形容词)
She does not rise very early .(副词)
One is really happy only when one is in sound health .(从句)
Unfortunately the thief was not caught.(全句)
副词与形容词有时是同形的,如 first、hard、fast、early、late、well、much、little、high、low、long、wide、right、straight、enough 等,如“He was very tired,because he had been busy since early morning. ”(用作形容词)又“He that would thrive must rise early . ”(用作副词)
有时加上 -ly 与不加 -ly,同为副词,不过意义不同而已。
1. 副词的种类(Kinds of Adverbs)
① 普通副词(Simple Adverb)
a. 表时间的:before、ago、early、lately、soon、at once、today、yesterday、tomorrow、long ago、
sooner or later 等。
b. 表地点的:here、there、far、near、close by、over there、to and fro、far away 等。
c. 表次数的:once、twice、sometimes、seldom、often 等。
d. 表方式的:well、thus、kindly、bravely、wisely、well of 等。
e. 表分量的:little、more、greatly、enough、every、too、almost、more or less 等。
f. 表肯定的:yes、certainly 等。
g. 表否定的:no、not、never 等。
② 疑问副词(Interrogative Adverb)
a. 表时间的:
When shall we meet again?(何时)
How long has your throat been like this?(好久)
How often do you write to him a month?(几次)
b. 表地点的:
Where do you plan to spend the summer?(何处)
How far is it from here to your house?(距离)
c. 表方式的:
How is your family?(状态)
How is he useful?(如何)
d. 表程度的:
How do you like my new house?(好恶)
How do you like your tea?(浓度)
e. 表理由的:
Why do you ask that question?(何故)
How is it that you are always behind time?(怎样)
f. 表感叹的:
How beautiful she looks today!(美貌)
How it blows!(烈风)
③ 关系副词(Relative Adverb)
关系副词是 Adverb 而兼 Conjunction 的作用的,如 when、where、why 等皆是,用法如下:
a. 表时间的:
The summer holidays were the only part of the year when (in which)he was really happy.
b. 表地点的:
He led us to a joyous land where (in which)waters gushed and fruit trees grew.
c. 表理由的:
The reason why (on account of which)it happened is told in Browning’s poem.
d. 表方式的:
This is the way how he did it.
上面例句中所用的 when、why、where 等关系副词,都可以用 that 来代替,有时甚至可以完全省略。
His father died on the day(when)(that)he was born.(或用 that 代替 when,或全不用)
That is the reason(why)men seek fame and fortune.
又关系副词的先行词(Antecedent),有时颇不寻常,有时全然略去。
a. There are cases when politeness cuts deeper than impertinence.——Gardiner
There are cases,of course, where the clash of liberties seems to defy compromise.——Gardiner, Leaves in the Wind
This is the point where we stuck.
Americans have passed out of the period where they care about petty economies.
b. He asked me(the time) when I had arrived.
This is(the place) where we dwell.
That must be a long way from(the place) where we were.
She returned it to(the place) where it had been before.
A banana-skin was lying,like a bedraggled starfish,in the gutter,just in front of(the place) where they were standing.——Huxley, Antic Hay
关系副词的继续的用法。
We waited for half an hour when (= and then)the storm passed over.
They walked together to the entrance, where (= and there)they stopped.
④ 复合关系副词(Compound Relative Adverb)
在普通关系副词上加 ever 一词时,便成为复合关系副词,如 whenever = at any time when 及 wherever = in or to any place where 等。此种副词有时含有让步的意思(However 只能用于让步句中)。
a. 普通的:
Come whenever (= at any time when)it is convenient to you.
My dog follows me wherever (= to any place where)I go.
b. 让步的:
Whenever (= No matter when)I(may)go,I find him writing something.
Wherever (= No matter where)you(may)go,you will find the same thing.
However (= No matter how)careful you may be,accidents will happen.
2. 副词的比较(Comparison of Adverbs)
副词的比较(Comparison),其构成方式大概与形容词相仿,不过 no sooner than 和 more than 的用法,以及 the + Comparative 的用法,值得注意。
① 单音节及少数二音节的副词,比较级加 -er,最高级加 -est:
soon,sooner,soonest
fast,faster,fastest
near,nearer,nearest
late,later,latest
often,oftener,oftenest
② 字尾为 -ly 的副词,就用 more,most(less,least)来作成比较:
quickly,more quickly,most quickly
gently,less gently,least gently
但 early 一字则变成 earlier、earliest。
③ 不规则的比较:
well,better,best
ill(badly),worse,worst
much,more,most
little,less,least
far,farther,farthest
(注意)形容词的最高级要加 the,副词的最高级不加 the,但口语中也常加 the。
He is the best man alive.(形容词)
Take any book that you like best .(副词)
I like spring the best .(副词口语)
④ no + Comparative + than:
No sooner had he done so than he uttered a cry of disappointment.
The whale is no more a fish than a horse is.
The hen loves her chickens no less than our mother loves us.
An inattention to our persons implies a disrespect to others,and may often be traced no less to a want of good nature than of good sense.
⑤ 用于形容词、动词、名词等前的 more than:
You have already more than repaid me.——Stevenson, New Arabian Nights
Rose’s cheeks were more than touched by the sun.——Gissing, House of Cobwebs
Her plain features expressed a simplicity and gentleness which more than compensated for the lack of conventional grace in her manners.——Ibid.
I prayed to heaven in my heart that my boy,my more than son,might live.——Haggard, She
⑥the + Comparative(此 the = in that or what degree,原非冠词,而系关系副词的一种):
a. the + 比较级(因而更加)
I love him all the better for his faults.
He worked the harder ,because he had hopes of success.
The danger makes the sport only the pleasanter .——Thackeray, Vanity Fair
Learning makes a man wise,but a fool is made all the more a fool by it.
b. the + 比较级...the + 比较级(愈……愈)
The sooner , the better .
The more men have, the more they desire.
The older a man gets, the less exercise he takes.
3. 副词的位置(Position of Adverbs)
一般的原则是置于最接近其所修饰的词旁,约可分为五种,即被修饰词的紧前,被修饰词的紧后,主语与谓语的中间,语句的头上,语句的末尾。
a. 修饰形容词或别的副词时,置于该词之前:
We live in a very beautiful world.
You are doing your lessons very well.
但 enough 一个副词,便永远要置于形容词、副词或动词之后的,如:
The book is easy enough for you to read.
He spoke highly enough of what you had done.
I have slept enough .
b. 修饰动词时,有时在前,有时在后:
(i)修饰不及物动词时,副词置于动词之后:
He landed safely at the foot of the precipice,and looked anxiously around in search of Pierre.
You acted foolishly .
(注意)但 always、never、often、sometimes、seldom、generally、rarely 等副词,就要置于动词之前:
He always laughed at a good joke.
Never speak ill of others.
Even Homer sometimes nods.
(ii)修饰及物动词时,副词置于动词之前或宾语之后:
She bitterly reproached herself for having believed reports.
When you have done your best,wait the result calmly and with hope .
(iii)如系复合动词,则副词置于助动词与主动词之间:
I have never seen anything more beautiful.
He may well be said to have been a fortunate man.
但 You never can tell 的说法,是因发音关系而产生的变则。
c. 修饰不定词时,除 never、always 等副词外,一般皆置于不定词之后:
The teacher ordered the boy to study diligently .
Cf. I hope never to see his face again.
d. 修饰整个的语句,副词通例是置于句首:
Unfortunately he was not listened to.
Luckily no one was inside,when the roof fell in.
e. 表示定时的副词常置于句首或句尾:
Last Sunday we made a trip to Tapeihu.
The students’ athletic meet will be held tomorrow .
f. 表示地点的副词置于动词之后,但与表示时间的副词同用时,则地点副词在先,时间副词在后:
She will be here soon .
A big fire broke out in Simon on the morning of the 20th inst .
g. only 一个副词最足代表,因所置的地位不同,而意义因之而异:
h. 加强语气的副词置于句首:
Scarcely had I passed through the gate before I heard a cry from the house.
Little did I expect that he would succeed so well.
4. 副词的用法(Special Uses of Adverbs)
① very 和 much
a. 形容词和副词的原级用 very,比较级和最高级用 much。
This novel is very instructive.(原级)
You read very slowly.(原级)
The air is much hotter today than yesterday.(比较级)
He is much the best student in the class.(最高级)
但为加强语气,在最高级之前也可用 very,如 He is the very best student in the class.
b. very 是修饰形容词、副词的,而 much 是修饰动词的。
He is very clever for his age.(形容词)
A polite bow will very often do.(副词)
He studies history very much .(动词)
c. 现在分词用 very,过去分词用 much:
The news is very surprising.
I am much surprised at the news.
(例外)very tired、very pleased、very delighted、very frightened、very rejoiced 等。
②yes 和 no
肯定的回答用 yes,否定的回答用 no。
Do you take a walk every day?
Yes ,I do. No ,I do not.
Did you not go on an excursion yesterday?
Yes ,I did. No ,I did not.
Is he not diligent? No ,he is idle.
Is he not severe? No ,he is very kind.
(注意)“你不晓得我已经搬了家吗?”“是的,我不晓得。”用英文说时,肯定的回答,应改为否定的回答,即“Don’t you know that I have moved?No,I don’t. ”
③否定词(Negation)
a. 否定的副词 not,普通置于助动词与主动词之间;如无助动词时,就得临时在否定词前加用一个 do 字,如:
I shall not see it again.
I have not seen him of late.
He does not tell me his name.
I did not tell him my name.
I do not like him.
但是动词的 be 和 have 却是例外,not 要置于主动词之后,如:
He is not a man of wit.
I have not that picture post card.
如 have 不做“有”解时,则应加用 do 字,如:
You do not have to go. = You need not go.
b. no 和 not(no 是形容词,not 是副词)
I have no dictionary.(have 意为“有”)
I have not your dictionary.(have 意为“拿”)
但加强语气时也可说 I have not a dictionary. 普通说 Wealth can not buy happiness. 如加强语气时,就可以说 No wealth can buy happiness.
c. never 和 nothing(never = not ever,nothing = not anything 都是加强语气的说法)
Never tell a lie,either for fun or from fear.(比说 Do not tell a lie,...语气要强些)
I know nothing except this.(比说 I do not know anything except this. 语气要强些)
d. seldom,hardly,scarcely,rarely(都是作“几乎没有”解的否定副词,不须再加 not 字样)
He seldom is absent.
I hardly ever see him now.
He scarcely ever opens a book.
e. little(这词也作“几乎没有”解,尤其是与 think,dream,know,expect 等动词,或 as,so,how 等副词同用时)
I little think that he would die.
Little did I dream of seeing such a fine scenery.
This shows how little he knows the world.
He knows the world as little as a new-born baby.
f. 部分否定(Partial Negation)
否定词的 not 和 all,every,both,always,necessarily 等词同用时,仅表示部分的否定。
All that glitters is not gold.(未必皆是)
Every man can not become great.(非人人所能)
Such things do not occur every day.(非日日发生)
The rich are not always happy.(未必)
Both his parents are not living.(非二人全死)
g. 二重否定(Double Negation)
There is nothing that he cannot do a little of,yet nothing he can do thoroughly.
It never rains but it pours.
There is nothing so strong but it is in danger from what is weak.
Nothing can be attained in this world without exertion.
There are few children who do not go to school.
④ once 和 ever(肯定句用 once,疑问句、条件句及否定句则用 ever)
I have been there once .
Have you ever been there?
If you ever go that way,don’t fail to call on me.
I don’t think he will ever do so.
但最高级的肯定句中要用 ever,如 He is the richest man that ever lived.
又在纯粹的肯定句中用 ever 是 always 之意,较之语气更强,如“Fortune was ever on his side I have ever thought so. ”。
⑤ already 和 yet(肯定陈述句用 already,否定句及肯定疑问句用 yet)
He has almost recovered already .
I have never failed yet .
Has the train arrived yet ?No,not yet .
注意:如说“Has the train arrived already?”便错了。
⑥too 和 either(肯定句用 too,否定句用 either)
I know him too .
I don’t know him either .
⑦ago,before 和 since(从现在以前说 ago,从过去某个时间以前说 before,所以 ago 是和 Past Tense 同用的,before 是和 Past Perfect 同用的。since 作副词用,意为以前,对 ago 或 before 二者皆可以用)
A century ago people did not know airplanes.
I came back yesterday,but he had come back two days before .
The tree cast their leaves a month since .
He said his father had died two years since .
Those were friends long since dead.
⑧there(用于表示人或物的有无)
There was a fire last night.
There may be some money in my drawer.
They say there is going to be war.
There has been no war between the two nations.
In the northern part of France there used to be a painting school.
It is necessary for there to be a change.
We became the more intimate from there being many resemblances of character between us.
At that moment there came a knock at the door.
Once there lived a farmer in this village.
(30)介词的用法
介词通常是置于名词或代词前的,所以又称为前置词。其形态不一,大多数是单词,但很多却是短语构成的,如 as for,as to,because of,by means of,in front of,in spite of,instead of,on account of,out of,owing to,up to,but for,for the benefit of,in honor of 等,另外又有双重的介词(Double Preposition),即并列的两个介词共着一个宾语时,就可省去一个宾语,如 on the ground 和 to the ground 就可并成 on to the ground,其他例如:
We stayed there till after sunset.
He picks the reticule from off Jack’s shirt-front.——Galsworthy, Silver Boz
The old citizen first emerged his round red face from out of the door.——Irving. Rural England
She loved to see every one gay and happy round about her.——Thackeray, Vanity Fair
介词有时可以略去,如
He walks at the rate of two miles(in)an hour.
He writes home two times(in)a month.
You may come to see me(at)any time between 4 and 5.
It will have been raining(for)a whole week(by)tomorrow.
He left here(on)this morning 或(on)last Sunday.
兹将主要介词的用法及意义,举例说明如下:
1. about
①附近:He lives somewhere about Yun Chiau.
②到处:They wander about the world.
③从事:What are you about ?
④关于:Please tell me about yourself.
2. above
①在上:The sun was seen above the horizon.
②优越:There is no riches above a sound body.
③超脱:He is above such mean actions.
④Phrase: Above all ,beware of illness.
3. after
①后(时间): After dark,we went back to out home.
②后(顺序): After a storm comes a calm.
③追求:He thirsts after knowledge.
④模仿:The son takes after the father more than the mother.
⑤不顾:He failed after all his labours.
⑥Phrases: One after another all my plans have failed.
He is a man after all .
Please look after my little boy in my absence.
4. against
①反对:I am against the plan.
②相靠:He stood leaning against the wall.
③冲突:He ran his boat against the bank.
④对照:The number of applicants this year is fifty against thirty last year.
⑤准备:We should always lay up against a rainy day.
5. across
①横断:He made several journeys across the continent.
②那边:He lives across the river.
6. at
①小地方: At the edge of a forest there grew a great oak.
②短时间:We generally dine at eight.
③接近:The servant is now at the well.
(注)自愿的接近用 at,偶然的接近用 by,如 There is a willow tree by the well.
④比率:I walk at the rate of four miles an hour.
⑤代价: At what price did you buy that hat?
⑥从事:He was busily at work all day.
⑦状态:Please call on me tomorrow if you are at leisure.
⑧目标:The hunter fired at a fox.
⑨看到:I am surprised at the sight.
⑩听到:He was frightened at the news.
⑪限度:The examination is at an end.
⑫Phrases:He was at a loss for a suitable reply.
She was not ignorant at any rate .
He did it at the expense of his character.
The ship was at the mercy of wind and waves.
I tried to save him at the risk of my own life.
7. before
①前(时间):Call on me again before the day of your departure.
②前(地点):Don’t stand before me.
③选择:Death before dishonour.
④Phrase:The rainy season will set in before long .
8. behind
①后面:My box is behind your chair.
②背后:Do not speak ill of a man behind his back.
③遗下:He has left a great fortune behind him.
④迟延:I was a little behind time today.
9. below
①在下:There is a pool below the bridge.
②劣于:His scholarship is below his cousin’s.
③以下:He cannot be below thirty.
10. beneath
①底下:Many heroes sleep beneath those tombstones.
②下位:Do not associate with them:it is beneath you.
11. beside , besides
①并行:There is a path beside the river.
②比较:This is a poor work beside yours.
③Phrase:He was beside himself with anger.
④之外:We nearly all take German besides English.
12. beyond
①那边:There is a tea-house beyond the hill.
②不能:It was dreadful beyond description.
13. but
①除开:You may take anything but this.
②Phrases:He has nothing but a few French books.
He is anything but a wild man.
14. by
①旁边:We rested at a tea-house by the wayside.
②创作者:Moving pictures were invented by Edison.
③手段:Are you going by train or by steamer?
④标准:Time is measured by the hour.
⑤相差:He is my senior by two years.
⑥计算:In America they board by the week.
⑦为止:He will certainly come by four o’clock.
⑧累加:They came in one by one.
⑨发誓: By Heavens.
⑩Phrases:Let’s go on, by all means .
I will by no means consent.
By the way I have something to tell you.
I am going to Europe by way of America.
He has succeeded by dint of perseverance.
It looks as if it would clear up by and by .
I work by day ,not by night .
He is not the man to do things by halves .
15. for
①去处:He left Keelung for Japan.
②目的:Never study only for wealth.
③交换:I bought it for ten dollars.
④原因:Jan angry with you for doing such a thing.
⑤期间:I have not seen you for a long time.
⑥比较:He knows a good deal for a lad of ten.
⑦不顾: For all his wealth,he is discontented.
⑧赞成:I am for the bill,but he is against it.
⑨同情:I am sorry for you.
⑩找寻:He is looking for some good excuse to give up school.
⑪Phrases:The life of man in this world is, for the most part ,a life of work.
I took him for a poet.
Please send for the doctor.
As for fame,it is but little matter.
That ship is bound for San Francisco.
16. from
①地点:How far is it from here to the airfield?
②时间:I have known him from the child.
③推想:Judging from reports,he seems to be rich.
④分离:He has recovered from his illness.
⑤区别:It is hard to know flatterers from friends.
⑥材料:Gas is made from coal.
⑦起源:He comes from Ireland.
⑧妨害:His illness prevented him from working.
⑨禁止:I have been ordered by the doctor to abstain from wine.
⑩保护:Let us take shelter from the rain.
⑪原因:I often suffer from a severe headache.
⑫Phrases:He lives from hand to mouth .
He was trembling from head to feet .
17. in
①长时间:Nightingale was born in 1820.
②大地方:When in Rome,do as the Romans do.
③状态:We should keep our body in good health.
④方式:Please send a telegram in haste.
⑤目的:The Greeks held games in honor of the Olympian gods.
⑥同一:I have found a good friend in Mr. A.
⑦程度:This seems to have lightened the load in some measure.
⑧实际: In fact,there is not much chance for the man whose courage fails.
⑨在某点上:He is the first in arithmetic.
⑩衣服:The gentleman in a morning coat is Dr. B.
⑪Phrases:Let one of us go in your stead .
Still, in the main ,choice of companions can be made and must be made.
Real ability will win in the long run .
In short ,I want some money.
Apply in person .
I was in season for the fair.
I was just in time for the express.
The boy will become a useful man in time .
18. into
①从外入内:He plunged into the water.
②变化:Water changes into ice at 32°by Fahrenheit.
③制作:Bamboo is made into various kinds of things.
④研究:Look into your dictionary.
19. off
①港外:The steamer is at anchor off Keelung.
②脱离:The wind blew a tile off the roof.
20. of
①所有关系:The cover of this book is yellow.
②同格:Newton was born at the small village of Woolsthorpe.
③形容词句:Nothing of importance resulted from the movement.
④部分:Some of the boys returned by train.
⑤内容:He takes a glass of wine every evening.
⑥材料:Formerly all ships were made of wood.
⑦起源:Your illness comes of eating too much.
⑧关于:What became of your servant?
Does your father know of this?
⑨原因:He died of consumption.
⑩剥夺:Ill temper will rob you of peace and happiness.
⑪Phrases:The weather has been very changeable of late .
I am of opinion that the step is wrong.
His horse sprang forward all of a sudden .
21. on , upon
①在某日:A poster exhibition was held on the 10th of this month.
②定时: On the morning of the 15th inst.,there was a slight earthquake in this city.
③表面接触:There hangs a map on the wall.
④题目:Mr. Lee wrote an essay on electricity.
⑤实际状态:The house was on fire. He is on duty.
⑥为着某事:Sometimes I run to the town on errands.
⑦基础:You must act on this theory.
⑧理由:He resigned on account of his poor health.
⑨依赖:Your success or failure depends on your exertion.
⑩界线接触:Chicago is on Lake Michigan.
⑪支持:He wished only to have enough to live on .
⑫奏乐:Can you play on the piano?
⑬随即: On arriving there,we drove to the restaurant.
⑭Phrases:He left Taipei for America on board the steamer Gordon.
It takes 20 minutes from here to the station on foot .
On an average ,ten vessels enter the port every day.
He was killed on the spot .
My opinion is on the whole the same as yours.
The young man who expects to get on must work very hard.
He carries on a retail trade.
22. out of
①in 的反对:He is a fish out of water.
②into 的反对:Many people were so frightened that they ran out of their house.
③动机:I saved him out of pity for his family.
④部分:This is only one instance out of many.
⑤材料:We make many things out of paper.
⑥Phrases: Out of sight , out of mind .
His hat is out of fashion .
I am quite out of breath .
23. over
①悬在上面:We have a roof over us.
②支配:He had no control over his appetites.
③超过:He seems to be over fifty.
④同时发生:He went to sleep over his work.
⑤原因:I wept over his death.
⑥覆盖:Please spread the blanket over the grass.
⑦跳过:The bad boy climbed over the hedge and went into the garden.
⑧反复:We talked over it till midnight.
24. through
①贯通:The train has passed through a tunnel.
②媒介:They speak through an interpreter.
③原因:He lost his position through neglect of his duty.
④继续:He slept through the lesson.
25. to
①时间:He remembered it to his dying day.(与 till 同)
②方向:Anping is situated to the northwest of Tainan.
③附加:Add three to four.
④程度:Snow fell to the depth of 2 feet.
⑤结果:The building was burnt to ashes.
⑥比例:Ten to one he will fail in the new enterprise.
⑦比较:Man’s life is often compared to a candle.
⑧适合:This work was not to his taste.
⑨关系:He is the heir to that property.
⑩Phrases:Let us be up and doing to the purpose .
He used his talent to the best advantage .
26. toward ( s )
①向着:I saw the boys run towards the river.
②时近: Towards evening,the wind abated a little.
③对于:We must fulfill our duty towards our community.
27. under
①正下面:There is a cat under the table.
②部下: Under him were three petty officials.
③在……中:The new machine is under examination.
④负担:The old man bent under the load.
⑤不到:He must be under 30 years of age.
⑥假装:He cheated me under the mask of friendship.
⑦口实:He did not come under the excuse of illness.
⑧境遇:It is impossible under such circumstances.
28. with
①所有:I have no money with me today.
②工具:We see with our eyes,and hear with our ears.
③原因:Hearing the news,she is mad with joy.
④同时:I rise with the lark,go with the lark to bed.
⑤比较:Few writers can compare with Scott as creators of romance.
⑥一致:He acted in accordance with rule.
⑦同居:I lived with my uncle for many years.
⑧边说边做: With this he left the room.
⑨反抗:I have to contend with difficulties.
⑩密切关系:I am very intimate with him.
⑪Phrases:I accept your help with all my heart .
He worked with a will .
Study with all your might and main .
Deal honestly with all men .
29. within
①时间内:I will come back within an hour.
②地区内:My house stands within a mile of the school.
30. without
①with 的反对:He went without his dinner.
②代 if...not: Without air,we cannot live.
③Phrases:If I cannot get what I want,I will do without it.
Nobody can see the scenery without admiring it.
You must pay your debt without delay .
(31)类别的介词
1. 表时间的介词:
① at , in , on
at 用于黎明、正午、夜半、何时、何分等短时间,即指 a point of time(时的一点)的场合;in 用于年、月、四季、世纪等长时间,即指 a period of time(时的期间)的场合;on 用于表示固定的时日。
A fire broke out at dawn .(在黎明时)
The meeting adjourned for an hour at noon .(正午)
The temperature is mild in spring .(在春天里)
Our school holds a regatta in April .(在四月中)
We went on an excursion on Wednesday .(在礼拜三)
Columbus discovered America on the 12th of October,1492.(在十二日)
② in , within , after
in 用以表示“期间的经过”,within 用以表示“期间内”,after 用以表示“以过去为起点的期间的经过”。
He will be here in a week.(再过一礼拜他就会到这里来。)
He will be back within a week.(他在一礼拜内就会回来的。)
After a week he came back.(过了一礼拜他回来了。)
③ till , by ; since , from
till 是表示继续的终止点,作“直到”解;by 是表示完结的时限,作“到……为止”解;since 是表示继续到现在为止的出发点,作“从……以来”解;from 是表示事情开始的出发点,作“从”解。since 要和“现在完成”同用,而 from 则多是和“过去”同用的。
My brother will stay there till the end of next year.(我哥哥要在那里住到明年年底。)
My brother will come back by the end of next year.(我哥哥到明年底为止就会回来的。)
He has lived here since 1900.(从1900年以来。)
He lived in Japan from 1900 to 1910.(从1900到1910年。)
④ before , after ; past , to
都是表示时间的前后的,不过 past 和 to 系用于钟表上的时刻。
I started before noon and arrived after dark.
It is a quarter past seven by my watch.
He left home at a quarter to seven.
⑤ for , during , through
for 是表示“期间”,during 是表示“状态的继续中”,而 through 就是表示“从头到尾”的意思。
His lecture lasted for an hour.(继续一小时。)
He was very kind during my stay in London.(滞留伦敦的时期。)
He worked hard through the summer.(整个夏季。)
2. 表地点的介词:
① at , in
at 用于比较狭小的地方,in 用于比较宽大的地方,如村镇等用 at;都市、国家等用 in。
He lives at a small village near Tainan.(住在台南附近一小村中)。
Radio is all the rage in Europe and America.(无线电在欧美大为流行)。
② on , beneath ; above , below ; ever , under ; up , down
on 表示“表面的接触”,beneath 表示“底下的接触”;above 表示“高”(higher than),below 表示“低”(lower than),是说高低的;over 表示“顶头上面”,under 表示“直接下面”;而 up 和 down 便单是表上下的。
There is a book on the table.
He took it from beneath his coat.
A beautiful full moon rose above the horizon.
The sun has just sunk below the horizon.
I saw several airplanes flying over the city.
We took shelter from the rain under a pine tree.
At dawn he went up the hill.
We sailed down the river.
③ in , into , out of
in 是表示在中间的一种静止的状态,into 是表示从外入内的运动,out of 是表示在外面的状态,或是出到外面来的运动。
Fish live in the water;they cannot live out of it.
He came into the room when we were going out of it.
④ along , across , through
along 是表示“沿着”一个长东西的位置,across 表“交叉”或“横断”,through 表“贯通”。
The ship sailed along the coast.
A road runs across the plain.
The river flows through the city.
⑤ in front of , behind
in front of 是“在前”,behind 是“在后”。
There is an automobile in front of the school.
He hid himself behind the door.
⑥ on , off
on 是说表面的接触,off 则相反地,为离去之意。
You should not put your elbows on the table.(勿置肘于桌。)
The glass rolled off the table.(玻璃杯从食桌上滚下去了。)
⑦ between , among
between 是说二者之间,among 则为多数之间。
He lives about half-way between Taipei and Taichung.
The robins were playing among the trees.
⑧ around , round , about
around 表示周围静止的位置,round 表示在周围回转的运动,about 则为漠然地说那周围。
We sat around the fire.
Let us walk round the pond.
We rowed about the pond.
(注)在美国 around 与 round 二词常混用。
⑨ by , beside , at
by,beside 是表示“偶然的接近”,at 是表示“有意志的接近”。
There is a pinetree by ( beside )the gate.
Wives are chatting at the well.
⑩ to , for , toward
to 用于 go,come 等动词,for 用于 start,leave 等动词,二者都是表目的地的。toward 便有“向着”之意,单表示运动的方向。
He went to Europe last week.
He left Taipei for America.
He ran toward the seashore.
3. 表来源的介词: from , of
What part of the country does he come from ?
That young man is of a noble family.
4. 表材料或原料的介词: from , of (from 表原料,of 表材料)
Brandy is made from grapes.
Her clothes are made of muslin.
He makes many things out of paper.
(注)make 如与 of 分离的话,就常要用 out of 代替 of。
5. 表行为者及手段的介词: by , with
by 用于 Passive 之后,行为者之前;with 表示用什么工具,而 by 则表示用什么手段。
He was killed by a burglar.(行为者)
He was killed with a pistol.(工具)
He left Taipei for America by Pan American Clipper.(手段)
6. 表原因的介词: from , of , through , at , over , with , for
①from 表直接的原因
He is suffering from influenza.
②of 表死因,但如说出 cause 一字来,便要用 from 了
His brother died of typhoid fever.
Cf. He died from unknown cause .
③through 表存在的原因,主要指不注意、疏忽等的原因
It was entirely through your neglect that your child was run over by a motorcar.
④at 用于见闻及喜怒哀乐等场合,over 则用于表示成为原因的事情
The whole nation rejoiced at the news of victory.
The nation rejoiced over the victory.
⑤with 是表由外界而及于肉体的原因,for 是表于心灵的无形的原因
He is shivering with cold on the ice.
I tremble for your safety.
7. 表目的的介词: for , after , on
Some work for money,others for fame.
What is he after ?
He has gone to America on business.
8. 表理由的介词: for , on
California is famous for its oranges.
He declined on the ground of previous engagement.
9. 表结果的介词: to , into
表一般的结果都是用 to,表变化的结果才用 into。
To his great surprise,he found the house quite neat and clean.
Wheat is ground into flour.
10. 表比较的介词: with , to
同类相比用 with,异物相比用 to。
The Thames is not to be compared with the Yangtze River.
We compare life to a voyage.
(32)词后的介词
这是讲接用在形容词和动词等后的介词,即令是同一个词,只因后面接的介词不同而意义就变了,所以初学者应特别注意这些不同的介词,用在同一词后的时候:
abstain from wine 戒酒
afraid of doing 怕做
complain of 抱怨,不平
comply with the rules 遵守,依从
congratulate a person on his success 祝贺
consult with a person on or about something 商量
depend on 依赖,靠
daprive a person of something 夺取
despair of success 绝望,无成功之望
devote oneself to study 献身于学问,专心从事
excel in languages 精通语文
famous for his learning 以有学问著名
fond of wine 好酒
full of water 充满了水
graduate from (or at )a college 从大学毕业
ignorant of something 全然不知
independent of somebody 独立,不倚赖
inferior to a person 劣于,不及
insist on doing something 坚持要做(好的方面)
laugh at a person(thing)笑某人或某事
live on rice 以米为生
noted for its temples 以庙宇驰名
order a book from America 向美国定购
participate in an action 参加
persist in doing something 坚持要做(不好的方面)
prefer tea to coffee 更喜欢
prepare for examination 准备考试
prevent a person from going 阻止
protect a person from harm 保护某人免其受伤
recover from illness 恢复
remind a person of something 提醒
rescue a person from drowning 救人于溺
result in a consequence 成为结果
retire from business 隐退,告老
rid the house of mice 驱除老鼠
rob a person of his money 抢夺金钱
seek for happiness 追求幸福
sorry for a person 为某人难受
stare at a man 凝视
suffer from consumption 害着肺病
sympathize with a person 同情
(33)连词和感叹词
1. 连词的种类:
连词是用以连接语句中的两个部分的,如单词和单词,短语和短语,分句和分句等,要把它们连接起来就得用连词。连词有两种:一为并列连词(Coordinate Conjunction),一为从属连词(Subordinate Conjunction)。并列连词是用以连接同等关系的字句的,而从属连词所连接的,便有主从之分,即一为主句,一为从句。这里所谓从句,即是名词从句,形容词从句,或是副词从句,在复句中,处于从属地位。兹各举几个实例如下:
a. A woman and a melon are hard to choose.
b. Do you go by land or by sea ?
c. Speech is great , but silence is greater .
以上句中的 and、or、but 为并列连词。
d. That we shall win is certain.(名词从句)
e. People who live in glass house should never throw stones.(形容词从句)
f. Let us be silent that we may hear the whispers of the gods .(副词从句)
以上句中的 that、who 为从属连词。
2. 并列连词的用法:
(a)表结合的连词:
〔说明〕单是把两个词句结合拢来,可用 and;要加强双方的意思,就用 both...and;至于用 not only...but also 来连接时,就是后者的意思比前者更强;用 as well as 时便要反转来说,因后者的意思是弱于前者的。
He is not only a knave, but a fool. = He is a fool as well as a knave.
(b)表反对的连词:
(c)表推论的连词:
〔说明〕therefore 用于证明议论等场合,至于日常单纯的事柄就用 so。
(d)表选择的连词:
He will not go, and I will not go, either .
He will not go, neither will I.
He will not go, nor will I.
3. 从属连词的用法:
(a)表时间的连词:
〔说明〕when 可用于过去、现在、未来的任何时候,while 表示继续的意思,as 用以表时,有“同时”之意。
〔说明〕(1)句中的 when 为“从属连词”,(2)句中的 when,其前有逗号时为 and then 之意,所以是“并列连词”。
〔说明〕以上三者全是“随即”的意思,as soon as 的动词前后皆可用 Past;其他二者就是前用 Past Perfect,后用 Past。
(b)表条件的连词:
(c)表地点的连词:
(d)表方法的连词:
(e)表程度的连词:
(f)表原因的连词:
〔说明〕because 表直接的原因;for 表推论;since 表自然的推论,可译作“既然……就”;as 多用于口语,意较 because,since 为弱。又 since,as 常置于句首,now that 与 since 用法相同。
(g)表结果的连词:
〔说明〕such...that 和 so...that 同义,不过在 such 后接名词(有时可略去),在 so 后接形容词或副词。
(h)表让步的连词:
〔说明〕as 用作 though 之意时,其前可接(1)Noun(无冠词的),或(2)Adjective 或(3)Adverb,或(4)Past Participle;后接 Subject 及 Verb,例如:
(1) Hero as he was,he was surprised at the news.(Noun)
(2) Important as sugar is as an article of food,we cannot live upon it.(Adjective)
(3) Much as I want to do so,father will not allow me to do so.(Adverb)
(4) Surrounded as he was by the enemy,he was not afraid.(Past Participle)
whether ... or not Students must study, whether they like it or not .
(i)表目的的连词:
(j)表其他的连词:
(1) as ... as 用于不同的二物或二人所有的相同的程度时,否定时用 not so...as。
The ice was as smooth as glass.
She is not so beautiful as her sister.
(2) as ... as any , as ... as ever , the Superlative ... that ever 三者全是表最高级。
He can ride on horseback as well as any man in the country.
You see in him as complete a villain as ever disgraced humanity.
He is the worst boy that I have ever seen.
(3) as ..., so
As the human body is nourished by the food, so is a nation nourished by its industries.
(4) as far as (表范围), so far as (表限制或条件)
As far as he could see was a turbulent flood.
I will go with you as far as London.
So far as I know,there is no such word in English.
Progress has been very slow indeed, so far as the social life of the people is concerned.
(5) not so much ... as (与 rather than 相同,但顺序不同,如 not so much A as B = rather B than A)
A man’s worth lies not so much in what he has as in what he is.
(6) no matter how (或 who 或 whether) may
Those who have achieved good results kept on trying, no matter how great the obstacles.
I shall always obey your order, no matter what it may be.
You should go to the country for a change, no matter where .
感叹词是表示强烈感情的叫声的。用在语句之前,与语句全无语法上的关系。有时又可插入语句当中任何一部分。
表喜悦的:Hurrah!Huzza!
表笑声的:Ha!ha!Aha!
表悲哀的:Alas!Ah!Oh!
表惊讶的:Oh!Ah!Hah!What!Why!Dear me!Oh dear!Good Heavens!Lo!Behold!
表赞赏的:Bravo!Well done!Good!Nice!Excellent!
表轻蔑的:Pooh!Pshaw!Tut-tut!Fie!For shame!
表注意的:Look!Hark!Look here!
表呼唤的:Ho!Hallow!Hullo!Hello!Ahoy!Hey!
表赞成的:Hear!hear!
表欢迎的:Welcome!
表道别的:Good-bye!Farewell!Adieu!
表拟声的:Bang!Bow-wow!Mew!