在比较文学作为一门学科诞生之前,“比较文学”作为术语就已产生,最早出现于法国两位中学教师诺埃尔和拉普拉斯合编的《比较文学教程》(1816)中,但这只是一部来自不同时期和国家的文学作品选集,并未涉及比较文学的方法与理论。使这一术语得以流行的,是法国文学批评家、巴黎大学教授维尔曼(1790—1870)。1827年至1830年,他在巴黎大学开设比较文学性质的讲座——关于18世纪法国作家对于外国文学与欧洲思想影响之考察,他在讲授中曾几次使用“比较文学”和“比较分析”等术语,两年以后他出版了渗透了大量欧洲意识的讲稿《18世纪法国文学综览》,为“比较文学”术语在实践中找到安身立命之所。以后他又出版了著作《批评哲学的比较研究》,作者由此获得“比较文学之父”之尊号。稍后,安贝尔(1800—1864)接替维尔曼的工作,在巴黎大学开设“各国比较文学史”的讲座,并讲授“论中世纪法国文学同外国文学的关系”,他还著有《各种诗歌的比较研究》。此后,基内(1803—1875)在里昂大学作了名为“比较文学”的讲座。1865年后,“比较文学”作为专门术语而被普遍接受。1871年,大批评家勃兰兑斯开始在丹麦讲授具有比较文学性质的课程,在后世的学者看来,其代表作《19世纪文学主潮》正是比较文学类型学研究的典范。1877年,第一本专业杂志《世界比较文学》创刊于奥匈帝国的克劳森堡(今罗马尼亚克卢日);1886年,德国学者科赫创办《比较文学杂志》。同年,时任新西兰奥克兰大学教授的英国学者波斯奈特出版世界上第一部讨论比较文学理论的专著《比较文学》,开始确立“比较文学”的方法论基础和研究框架。1900年夏,欧美学者在巴黎举行国际讨论会,“各国文学的比较史”成为会议重要议题,会议还呼吁建立国际比较文学学会。
19世纪70年代以来,随着比较文学研究在欧洲的关注度日益增加,比较文学作为一门独立学科的地位开始逐渐形成。1871年,意大利的那不勒斯大学给著名批评家桑克蒂斯提供比较文学教授职位;继之都灵大学、俄罗斯的彼得堡大学以及丹麦的哥本哈根大学也设立了同样的职位。1888年,普鲁士的布雷斯劳大学 聘用科赫为比较文学教授;1891年,布拉格大学设立比较文学教授职位;1897年,法国的里昂大学为戴克斯特(1855—1927)设立比较文学教授职位,他开设的讲座课程是“文艺复兴后日耳曼文学对法国文学的影响”。到20世纪初,巴黎大学、斯特拉斯堡大学和法兰西学院也相继设立了比较文学的教授职位。
在美国,哈佛大学1897年为马什设立比较文学教授职位。他分别面向本科生和研究生,主要讲授“中世纪欧洲文学比较研究”“欧洲中世纪史诗的起源和发展”“来源于凯尔特人的传奇与诗歌材料和它在中世纪叙事诗中的处理”等课程。1899年,哥伦比亚大学开始设立同样的职位,伍德佩雷和斯宾加恩先后担任此教职,后者在该校英语系首次开设了比较文学课。
与此同时,比较文学的研究成果也得到越来越广泛的承认。1895年,戴克斯特以《卢梭与文学世界主义之起源》的论文获得学位;同年,瑞士学者贝兹以《海涅在法国》的论文获得博士学位。接着贝兹又于1897年至1899年间,在编写《比较文学史》的同时,整理出版了包含3 000个条目的《比较文学书目》。贝兹去世后,在比较文学领域贡献卓著的法国学者巴登斯贝格又将其修订为具有6 000项条目的《典据史》,并于1904年署名贝兹印行。由此,比较文学已成为在各国的本土文学和国别文学研究之外的一门独立的学问。
到20世纪初,比较文学研究进一步延伸到日本、苏联、印度、中国等国家和地区。巴登斯贝格和弗里德希合编的《比较文学书目》(1950)收录文献3.3万种,1954年国际比较文学学会成立、1958年美国教堂山会议首次实现美国比较文学研究者和欧洲学者的正式对话之后,比较文学研究队伍日益壮大,著述更丰富。
尽管比较文学的术语和学科体系的形成都是近100多年间的事,但在文学研究中运用比较法却在欧洲有着悠久的历史传统。比较方法的渊源可追溯到古希腊、罗马时期。古希腊著名文艺理论家亚里士多德在《诗学》中运用了求同辨异的比较方法,分析史诗、悲剧与喜剧等不同文类的异同。罗马帝国时期,由于古罗马文学有意借鉴和模仿古希腊文学(如维吉尔创作《埃涅阿斯记》时有意对荷马史诗的模仿,写成世界文学史上第一部“文人诗史”),古罗马作家或理论家自然经常比较两个时代、民族和语言等在文学上的异同。例如,诗人贺拉斯以古希腊诗歌为典范,广泛吸收了希腊抒情诗的各种格律,成功地运用于拉丁语诗歌创作,达到了相当完美的程度,把罗马抒情诗创作推向了高峰,并在其《诗艺》中论及艺术与摹仿的关系,把希腊、罗马文学两相比较,号召作家们“日日夜夜把玩希腊的范例”,他把维吉尔比作荷马,将普劳图斯与阿里斯托芬进行了比较。罗马修辞学家昆提利安在《演说术原理》中曾非常细致地比较了古罗马演说家西塞罗和古希腊演说家狄摩西尼的异同。理论家麦克罗皮斯也探讨了维吉尔诗歌对希腊史诗的模仿与从属关系。此后这种比较方法相沿成习。
中世纪时,意大利著名文学家但丁在其学术著作《论俗语》的第九章,把奥克语的古法国文学和奥依语的普罗旺斯文学加以比较。文艺复兴时期,面对新发掘出来的希腊、罗马的古典文艺,意大利的人文主义者深受影响,进行了比较研究,在一些问题的看法上发生分歧,形成保守派与激进派,这两派之争一直影响到17世纪法国的“古今之争”。
18世纪以后,随着资本主义的不断发展,西方各国之间,甚至东西方国家之间的政治经济与商业的联系大大加强,文化交流日益频繁,而且成为影响各国文学发展的重要因素。在这种情况下,任何国家文学的发展也不可能脱离国际环境与异国影响,广泛的文化交流使得各民族文学之间互相联系、互相影响,诱发了人们比较研究的意识并且能够提供比较研究的参照系。
18世纪兴盛于法国的启蒙运动使欧洲各民族之间的接触更加活跃。当时,法国是思想文化的中心,各国纷纷向法国学习,英国和德国也因其优秀的思想文化成就开始受到法国人的瞩目。当时,文学作品的翻译大量涌现,法国启蒙思想家的作品被译成各种文字,传遍欧洲,莎士比亚的戏剧不但被翻译成各国文字,而且占据了各国舞台;作家和作品之间的相互借鉴和影响成为普遍现象。在这种历史条件下,文学之间的对比研究自然比前代更为丰富,欧洲范围内的思想和文学的超国界说和“文艺的共和国”的观念随之出现。
18世纪至19世纪初,德国的莱辛在《汉堡剧评》中比较了亚里士多德和法国古典主义的理论,认为古典主义理论对《诗学》的诠释是偏颇的。莱辛认为,德国剧作家应该师法的对象不是伏尔泰、拉辛、高乃依等法国古典主义作家,而是英国的莎士比亚。而在《拉奥孔》中,莱辛则是以诗与画的差异为切入点,进行了文学与美术两大文类的比较。奥·威·施莱格尔在柏林开设的“关于美文学和艺术讲座”从总体上描述了整个西欧的文学史,他把西欧文学分成古典的和浪漫的两部分。在《论戏剧艺术和文学》一书中,他进一步说明古典的文学和艺术是机械的、造型的、有限的、简单的、封闭的、文类分明的,而浪漫的文学艺术却是有机的、如画的、无限的、复杂的、不断发展的、文类混杂的。依据这样的原则,他比较了古希腊罗马的文学、中世纪文学、文艺复兴,以及17—18世纪西欧各国的文学,而把古罗马文学、17世纪欧洲各国文学看作古典的文学。1827年1月31日,在与爱克曼的谈话中,歌德提出:“我相信,一种世界文学正在形成,所有的民族都对此表示欢迎,并且都迈出令人高兴的步子。在这里德国可以而且应该大有作为,它将在这伟大的聚会中扮演美好的角色。”他在世界视野中关注民族文学,这就使文学的天地由民族拓展到世界,从而预告了养润民族文学个性、冲决狭隘民族藩篱的“世界文学”的出场。此时,从世界文学的角度来研究各国文学的相互联系,比较其异同,就成为一种必然的趋势。
在法国,孟德斯鸠曾比较不同节奏语言的诗歌,试图通过这种比较研究制订出总体文学诗歌格律的理论。伏尔泰则写了《论史诗》一文,采用比较古代和近代各个国别文学中史诗类型的方法,以提炼史诗类型的本质因素,从而综合制订出总体文学史诗类型的理论。中国的元杂剧《赵氏孤儿》传入欧洲之后,他将此剧与欧洲同类剧本作了对比,认为中国杂剧更富于美好的“理性”,有许多“合理近情”的原则,并按照自己的启蒙思想和理性原则,将其改编为《中国孤儿》。狄德罗的《理查逊颂》则把英国的理查逊与法国的拉辛相比较。司汤达的《拉辛与莎士比亚》在拉辛、莎士比亚等的比较中批驳古典主义,鼓吹所谓的“浪漫主义”,并初步确立了文学中现实主义的概念和理论原则。斯达尔夫人的《从文学与社会制度的关系论文学》通过对莪相和荷马诗歌为代表的北、南文学的比较,不仅指出北方文学饱含激情的忧郁与海滨、风啸、灌木、荒原以及多雾的气候有关,而南方文学充满欢快的明媚却与“清新的空气、丛密的树林、清澈的溪流”以及明朗的气候相关,她还说明:“北方文学与这一地区的各民族对哲学的关注和对自由的向往紧密相关,而南方文学则与该地区各民族对艺术的热爱和安居乐业的向往紧密相关。”她的这一论著和《论德国》一起对后来法国的比较文学起了开拓性的作用。
19世纪盛行于欧洲的浪漫主义文学思潮对比较文学的形成也有较大影响。第一,浪漫主义秉承歌德提出的“世界文学”观念,接受了斯达尔夫人注重文学发展和社会状况之间的相互关系的理念,要求用历史比较方法代替古典主义纯文学批评的思想,强调描写异国风光,表现异国情调,颇为注意文学的国际性。第二,浪漫主义作家向往中世纪,重视民间文学。他们大量搜集中世纪故事和民间文学作品,这不仅促进了民间文学的整理、研究工作,而且促进了民俗学的兴旺发展。而民俗学的发展,导致对文学更大规模的比较研究,对比较文学的形成起了促进作用。
到了19世纪,随着各国之间的政治、经济、文化交流的发展,各个学科都出现了“比较热”。自然科学中以比较解剖学发端,陆续形成了比较生理学、比较胚胎学。接着波及人文学科,出现了比较语言学、比较神话学、比较宗教学、比较哲学等。各种各样的比较研究著作也纷纷问世:生物学方面有居维叶的《比较解剖学》、布朗维尔的《比较生理学》、科斯特的《比较胚胎形成学》;神话学方面有阿贝·特莱桑的《历史上的比较神话学》、缪勒的《比较神话学》;哲学方面有德热兰多的《哲学系统比较史》;爱欲研究方面有德·维耶的《比较爱欲学》;美学方面有索伯里的《比较绘画和文学教程》;宗教学方面有缪勒的《宗教学导论》。
在学术界的这种“比较”热潮带动和影响下,人们越来越多地注意到国际交流对于各国民族文学的巨大影响,注意到只有通过比较研究才能确认民族文学的特点与民族文学在世界文学中的地位,于是出现了自觉的比较文学研究和系统的比较方法探索。同时,文学与哲学、心理学、语言学、宗教学以及其他艺术门类之间的互相渗透和影响,社会科学和自然科学的发展不仅给文学提供了新的思想和新的思维方式,文学也通过文学作品对社会科学和自然科学的发展给予形象的表现和反映,形成良性互动,这同样也期待着学者和评论家在文学与其他学科之间寻找联系,深入研究文学与其他学科之间的种种关系。对此,韦勒克说:“我们需要一个广阔的视野和角度,这只有比较文学能够提供。”
法国哲学家孔德的实证主义哲学也对比较文学的产生具有极大的促进作用。孔德的实证主义认为科学和哲学研究的任务就是考证事实以及它们之间的联系,应以“实证的”“确实的”“事实”为依据,而不是以抽象推理为依据。实证主义从19世纪50年代开始在法国知识界得到广泛传播,并渗透到意识形态的各个领域,这一时期的文学研究也深受其影响。法国文学批评家、文学史家布吕纳季耶把实证主义用于文学研究,最早把一个作品对另一作品的影响提到首位,认为真正的影响与相互作用只有在单一的文化系统中才有可能产生,崇尚实证,重视考据,对法国比较文学的形成和发展影响深远。
诞生于19世纪初期的比较语言学,在研究方法上更是给予比较文学以直接的启示。19世纪德国学者拉斯克、博普、格林等开创并发展了印欧语系各种语言的比较研究,他们通过对古代和现代语言的比较,确定它们在起源上的共同根源,寻找它们的“原始共同语”,探索它们发展和演变的历史规律,这样便形成了历史比较语言学。他们进而把比较语言学研究与神话和宗教研究结合起来,在探索印欧雅利安民族的“原始共同语”时,进一步探寻这些共同语族在原始共同体中的生活状况及共同的宗教观念,于是,渐渐形成了比较神话学和比较宗教学。比较宗教学不仅和比较语言学、比较神话学一起给比较文学提供了“比较”的方法,而且它所强调的把一切宗教放在平等的并列位置上进行比较,也有利于比较文学形成中某些观念的健康化。
自然科学中对比较文学影响最大的是达尔文的进化论思想。达尔文在《物种起源》中提出了生物通过自然选择、优胜劣汰而不断进化的学说,这一进化论思想在欧洲乃至整个人类思想和精神的各个方面立即产生了巨大的影响。达尔文进化论的思想对比较文学的形成有很大影响,如世界上第一部比较文学理论著作——波斯奈特的《比较文学》就深受进化论观念的影响。波奈斯特在书中提出:“比较的意思就是时刻不忘社会发展对文学生长的变动关系。”他认为采用社会生活逐步扩展的方法,即从氏族扩大到城邦,从城邦扩大到国家,由此再扩大到世界大同的进化顺序,以进行比较文学研究,是最恰当的方法和顺序。
当然,比较文学在近代取得蓬勃发展的一个不容忽视的背景便是全球文明国际化进程。人类文化最初是多源头的分途发展,它们各自沿着独立的路线,形成自成体系的文化,较少进行相互交流。后来有了地区性的交流,逐渐形成了几个文化交流的区域,如印度佛教对中国和东南亚国家的影响;中国文化对日本、韩国和东南亚国家的影响;希腊罗马文化对西欧各国的影响。后来各地区之间也有了经济往来和文化交流,如连接东西方的丝绸之路,基督教传教士的东迁等。但文化传播和比较更多是在本文化圈内进行。
从近代西方的殖民运动开始,世界不同地区和国家间文化与文学的渗透和影响就不断强化。从最初作为政治统治手段的单向文化输出,到各民族纷纷独立之后在平等基础上的交流与对话;从被动的模仿到相互地借鉴汲取;从以强势文化为中心的同化,到自觉寻求不同文学的自身特色与多元价值的和而不同的共生;这就构成了比较文学兴起的文化背景。在这种新的历史条件下,从国际角度来研究各国文学的异同,研究其相互关系和影响,就成为一种必然趋势。比较文学就是适应了时代的这种要求,在文学交往不断加强的情况下发展起来的。
韦勒克曾提出:“比较文学的兴起是为反对大部分19世纪学术研究中狭隘的民族主义,抵制法、德、意、英等各国文学的许多文学史家的孤立主义。”面对文学的相互影响和交流的事实,传统的文学分析方法和研究思路显然不能作出令人满意的解释和说明,因为这些学者囿于固有的观念,很难理解本国文学作品中出现的新的思想、新的形象、新的叙述方式和新的意象,他们只能以“异端”目之,而要理解和说明这些“异端”,则需要能够研究这种众多关系的比较方法。
从上面的追溯中我们不难判断,比较文学学科的建立与研究的演进正是随着近代以来人类文化交往的日益密切而不断产生的新思考、新问题和新的对话需要而逐渐发展壮大的。在这样的时代,一国文学已经不是一种孤立现象,任何一种语言和文学都可能因其文化的价值或艺术的特色赢得人们关注和理解,而我们要了解一位作家,也必然会分析其创作的环境与动机,以及异国文学影响的因素。比较文学所关注的课题,除了人类的文学创造是如何相互联系、相互影响、相互借鉴之外,还要考察一个民族的优秀文学作品是如何实现跨语言、跨文明的流传;也包括通过比较,发现人类的文学活动的共通性及其因文化背景的差异而各呈异趣的魅力。近几十年来,学者们又开始关注一部文学作品的传播与译介是如何在拓展其影响力的同时,随着接受语境变迁或翻译的选择而产生冲突、误读或变异等奇特的命运。可以预见,随着经济全球化的加速和互联网时代不同区域与民族间文化交流的拓展,比较文学将展现出更加广阔的前景。
◉波斯奈特
【导读】哈钦森·麦考利·波斯奈特(H.M.Posnet,1855—1927),英国比较文学学者,1855年出生于北爱尔兰的安特林郡,1872年入都柏林大学三一学院学习希腊和拉丁文学,1877年获文学士学位,因学业出众,荣获金质奖章并留校工作。1881年起负责编辑《爱尔兰代表评论》杂志。翌年,发表了学术论文《伦理学、法理学和政治经济学中的历史方法》,并获得文学硕士学位。1884年,发表题为《李嘉图的租金理论》的论文,同年获得法学学士和法学博士学位。此后,他大部分时间从事讲学,1900年,在《现代评论》杂志上发表题为《比较文学的科学》的论文。
波斯奈特1886年出版的《比较文学》是世界上第一部论述比较文学理论的专著。包括引论、氏族文学、城市国家、世界文学和国别文学五个部分,共18章,另有前言和结束语。在这本专著中,波斯奈特把“比较的”与“历史的”看作同义语,对文学的本质、相对性、发展的原理、比较研究等许多问题作了精辟的阐述,该书的重要创见在于触及了世界文学的多元起源问题,认为世界文学起源自四大古老文明希腊—罗马、希伯来、印度和中国;从这四个文明古国的文学中,归纳出各自的世界文学精神;认为文学的发展与社会进化同步,是从简单向复杂、从城邦到国别再到世界的发展过程。本书所选的《比较法与文学》(The Comparative Method and Literature)系波氏《比较文学》著作的第一部分第四章21—24节,谈论了“比较法”对于文学研究的方法论意义。
§21.The comparative method of acquiring or communicating knowledge is in one sense as old as thought itself,in another the peculiar glory of our nineteenth century.All reason,all imagination,operate subjectively,and pass from man to man objectively,by aid of comparisons and differences.The most colourless proposition of the logician is either the assertion of a comparison,A is B,or the denial of a comparison,A is not B;and any student of Greek thought will remember how the confusion of this simple process by mistakes about the nature of the copula(cart)produced a flood of so-called“essences”(pvatat) which have done more to mislead both ancient and modern philosophy than can be easily estimated.But not only the colourless propositions of logic,even the highest and most brilliant flights of oratorical eloquence or poetic fancy are sustained by this rudimentary structure of comparison and difference,this primary scaffolding,as we may call it,of human thought.If sober experience works out scientific truths in propositions affirming or denying comparison,imagination even in the richest colours works under the same elementary forms.Athenian intellect and Alexandrian reflection failed to perceive this fundamental truth,and the failure is attributable in the main to certain social characteristics of the Greeks.Groups,like individuals,need to project themselves beyond the circle of their own associations if they wish to understand their own nature;but the great highway which has since led to comparative philosophy was closed against the Greek by his contempt for any language but his own.At the same time,his comparisons of his own social life,in widely different stages,were narrowed partially by want of monuments of his past,much more by contempt for the less civilised Greeks,such as the Macedonians,and especially by a mass of myth long too sacred to be touched by science,and then too tangled to be profitably loosed by the hands of impatient sceptics.Thus,deprived of the historical study of their own past and circumscribed within the comparisons and distinctions their own adult language permitted,it is not surprising that the Greeks made poor progress in comparative thinking,as a matter not merely of unconscious action but of conscious reflection.This conscious reflection has been the growth of European thought during the past five centuries,at first indeed a weakling,but,from causes of recent origin,now flourishing in healthy vigour.
When Dante wrote De Moquio Vvlgari he marked the starting-point of our modern comparative science—the nature of language,a problem not to be lightly overlooked by the peoples of modern Europe inheriting,unlike Greek or Hebrew,a literature written in a tongue whose decomposition had plainly gone to make up the elements of their own living speech.The Latin,followed at an interval by the Greek,Renaissance laid the foundations’of comparative reflection in the mind of modern Europe.Meanwhile the rise of European nationalities was creating new standpoints,new materials,for comparison in modern institutions and modes of thought or Hentiment.The discovery of the New World brought this new European civilisation face to face with primitive life,and awakened men to contrasts with their own associations more striking than Byzantine or even Saracen could offer.Commerce,too,was now bringing the rising nations of Europe into rivalry with,and knowledge of,each other,and,more than this,giving a greater degree of personal freedom to the townsmen of the West than they had ever possessed before.Accompanying the increase of wealth and freedom came an awakening of individual opinion among men,even an uprising of it against authority which has since been called the Reformation,but an uprising which,in days of feudal,monarchical,and“popular”conflict,in days when education was the expensive luxury of the few,and even the communication of work-a-day ideas was as slow and irregular as bad roads and worse banditti could make it,was easily checked even in countries where it was supposed to have done great things.Individual inquiry,and with it comparative thinking,checked within the domain of social life by constant collisions with theological dogma,turned to the material world,began to build up the vast stores of modern material knowledge,and only in later days of freedom began to construct from this physical side secular views of human origin and destiny which on the social side had been previously curbed by dogma.Meanwhile European knowledge of man’s social life in its myriad varieties was attaining proportions such as neither Bacon nor Locke had contemplated.Christian missionaries were bringing home the life and literature of China so vividly to Europeans that neither the art nor the scepticism of Voltaire disdained to borrow from the Jesuit Premare’s translation of a Chinese drama published in 1735.Then Englishmen in India learned of that ancient language which Sir William Jones,toward the close of the eighteenth century,introduced to European scholars;and soon the points of resemblance between this language and the languages of Greeks and Italians,Teutons and Celts,were observed,and used like so many stepping-stones upon which men passed in imagination over the flood of time which separates the old Aryans from their modern offshoots in the West.Since those days the method of comparison has been applied to many subjects besides language;and many new influences have combined to make the mind of Europe more ready to compare and to contrast than it ever was before.The steam-engine,telegraph,daily press,now bring the local and central,the popular and the cultured,life of each European country and the general actions of the entire world face to face;and habits of comparison have arisen such as never before prevailed so widely and so vigorously.But,while we may call consciously comparative thinking the great glory of our nineteenth century,let us not forget that such thinking is largely due to mechanical improvements,and that long before our comparative philologists,jurists,economists,and the rest,scholars like Reuchlin used the same method less consciously,less accurately,yet in a manner from the first foreshadowing a vast outlook instead of the exclusive views of Greek criticism.Here,then,is a rapid sketch of comparative thought in its European history.How is such thought,how is its method,connected with our subject,“Literature”?
§22.It has been observed that imagination no less than experience works through the medium of comparisons;but it is too often forgotten that the range of these comparisons is far from being unlimited in space and time,in social life anil physical environment.If scientific imagination,such as Professor Tyndall once explained and illustrated,is strictly bound by the laws of hypothesis,the magic of the literary artist which looks so free is as strictly bound within the range of ideas already marked out by the language of his group.Unlike the man of science,the man of literature cannot coin words for a currency of new ideas;for his verse or prose,unlike the discoveries of the man of science,must reach average,not specialised,intelligence.Words must pass from special into general use before they can be used by him;and,just in proportion as special kinds of knowledge(legal,commercial,mechanical,and the like)are developed,the more striking is the difference between the language of literature and that of science the language and ideas of the community contrasted with those of its specialised parts.If we trace the rise of any civilised community out of isolated clans or tribes,we may observe a twofold development closely connected with the language and ideas of literature—expansion of the group outwards,a process attended by expansions of thought and sentiment;and specialisation of activities within,a process upon which depends the rise of a leisure-enjoying literary class,priestly or secular.The latter is the process familiar to economists as division of labour,the former that familiar to antiquaries as the fusion of smaller into larger social groups.While the range of comparison widens from clan to national and even world-wide associations and sympathies,the specialising process separates ideas,words,and forms of writing from the proper domain of literature.Thus,in the Homeric age the speech in the Agora has nothing professional or specialised about it,and is a proper subject of poetry;but in the days of professional Athenian oratory the speech is out of keeping with the drama,and smacks too much of the rhetor’s school.Arabic poets of the“Ignorance”sing of their clan life;Spenser glows with warmly national feelings;Goethe and Victor Hugo rise above thoughts of even national destiny.It is due to these two processes of expansion and specialisation that the language and ideas of literature gradually shade off from the special language and special ideas of certain classes in any highly developed community,and literature comes to differ from science not only by its imaginative character,but by the fact that its language and ideas belong to no special class.In fact,whenever literary language and ideas cease to be in a manner common property,literature tends either towards imitation work or to become specialised,to become science in a literary dress—as not a little of our metaphysical poetry has been of late.Such facts as these bring out prominently the relation of comparative thinking and of the comparative method to literature.Is the circle of common speech and thought,the circle of the group’s comparative thinking,as narrow as a tribal league?Or,have many such circles combined into a national group?Are the offices of priest and singer still combined in a kind of magic ritual?Or,have professions and trades been developed,each,so to speak,with its own technical dialect for practical purposes?Then we must remember that these external and internal evolutions of social life,take place often unconsciously,making comparisons and distinctions without reflecting on their nature or limits;we must remember that it is the business of reflective comparison,of the comparative method,to retrace this development consciously,and to seek the causes which have produced it.Let us now look at the literary use of such comparison in a less abstract,a more lifelike form.
When Mr.Matthew Arnold defines the function of criticism as“a disinterested endeavour to learn and propagate the best that is known and thought in the world,”he is careful to add that much of this best knowledge and thought is not of English but foreign growth.The English critic in these times of international literature must deal largely with foreign fruit and flower,and thorn-pieces sometimes.He cannot rest content with the products ofhis own country’s culture,though they may vary from the wild fruits of the Saxon wilderness to the rude plenty of the Elizabethan age,from the courtly neatness of Pope to the democratic tastes of today.M.Demogeot has lately published an interesting study of the influences exerted by Italy,Spain,England,and Germany on the literature of France;our English critic must do likewise for the literature of his own country.At every stage in the progress of his country’s literature he is,in fact,forced to look more or less beyond her sea-washed shores.Does he accompany Chaucer on his pilgrimage and listen to the pilgrims’tales?The scents of the lands of the South fill the atmosphere of the Tabard Inn,and on the road to Canterbury waft him in thought to the Italy of Dante and of Petrarch and Boccaccio.Does he watch the hardy crews of Drake and Frobisher unload in English port the wealth of Spanish prize,and listen to the talk of great sea-captains full of phrases learned from the gallant subjects of PhilipⅡ.?The Spain of Cervantes and Lope de Vega rises before his eyes,and the new physical and mental wealth of Elizabethan England bears him on the wings of commerce or of fancy to the noisy port of Cadiz and the palaces of Spanish grandees.Through the narrow and dirty streets of Elizabethan London fine gentlemen,with Spanish rapiers at their sides and Spanish phrases in their mouths,pass to and fro in the dress admired by Spanish taste.The rude theatres resound with Spanish allusions.And,were it not for the deadly strife of Englishman and Spaniard on the seas,and the English dread of Spain as the champion of Papal interference,England’s Helicon might forget the setting sun of the Italian republics to enjoy the full sunshine of Spanish influences.But now our critic stands in the Whitehall of CharlesⅡ.,or lounges at Will’s Coffee-House,or enters the theatres whose recent restoration cuts to the heart his Puritan friends.Everywhere it is the same.Spanish phrases and manners have been forgotten.At the court,Buckingham and the rest perfume their licentious wit with French bouquet.At Will’s,Dryden glorifies the rimed tragedies of Racine;and theatres,gaudy with scenic contrivances unknown to Shakspere,are filled with audiences who in the intervals chatter French criticism,and applaud with equal fervour outrageous indecencies and formal symmetry.Soon the English Boileau will carry the culture of French exotics as far as the English hothouse will allow;soon that scepticism which the refined immorality of the court,the judges,and the Parliament renders fashionable among the few who as yet guide the destinies of the English nation,shall pass from Bolingbroke to Voltaire,and from Voltaire to the Revolutionists.We need not accompany our critic to Weimar,nor seek with him some sources of German influence on England in English antipathies to France and her revolution.He has proved that the history of our country’s literature cannot be explained by English causes alone,any more than the origin of the English language or people can be so explained.He has proved that each national literature is a centre towards which not only national but also international forces gravitate.We thank him for this glimpse of a growth so wide,so varying,so full of intricate interaction;it is an aspect of literature studied comparatively,but,in spite of its apparent width,it is only one aspect.National literature has been developed from within as well as influenced from without;and the comparative study of this internal development is offar greater interest than that of the external,because the former is less a matter of imitation and more an evolution directly dependent on social and physical causes.
§23.To the internal sources of national development,social or physical,and the effect of different phases of this development on literature,the student will therefore turn as the true field of scientific study.He will watch the expansion of social life from narrow circles of clans or tribal communities,possessed of such sentiments and thoughts as could live within such narrow spheres,and expressing in their rude poetry their intense feelings of brotherhood,their weak conceptions of personality.He will watch the deepening of personal sentiments in the isolated life offeudalism which ousts the communism of the clan,the reflection of such sentiments in songs of personal heroism,and the new aspects which the life of man,and of nature,and of animals—the horse,the hound,the hawk in feudal poetry,for example—assumes under this change in social organisation.Then he will mark the beginnings of a new kind of corporate life in the cities,in whose streets sentiments of clan exclusiveness are to perish,the prodigious importance of feudal personality is to disappear,new forms of individual and collective character are to make their appearance,and the drama is to take the place of the eurly communal chant or the song of the chieftain’s hall.Next,the scene will change into the courts of monarchy.Here the feelings of the cities and of the seigneurs are being focussed;here the imitation of classical models supplements the influences of growing national union;here literature,reflecting a more expanded society,a deeper sense of individuality,than it ever did before,produces its master-pieces under the patronage of an Elizabeth or a Louis Quatorze.Nor,in observing such effects of social evolution on literature,will the student by any means confine his view to this or that country.He will find that if England had her clan age,so also had Europe in general;that if France had her feudal poetry,so also had Germany,and Spain,and England;that though the rise of the towns affected literature in diverse ways throughout Europe,yet there are general features common to their influences;and that the same may be said of centralism in our European nations.Trace the influence of the Christian pulpit,or that ofjudicial institutions,or that of the popular assembly,on the growth of prose in different European countries,and you soon find how similarly internal social evolution has reflected itself in the word and thought of literature;how essential it is that any accurate study of literature should pass from language into the causes which allowed language and thought to reach conditions capable of supporting a literature;and how profoundly this study must be one of comparison and contrast.But we must not underrate our difficulties in tracing the effects of such internal evolution on a people’s verse and prose.We must rather admit at the outset that such evolution is liable to be obscured or altogether concealed by the imitation of foreign models.To an example of such imitation we shall now turn.
The cases of Rome and Russia are enough to prove that external influences,carried beyond a certain point,may convert literature from the outgrowth of the group to which it belongs into a mere exotic,deserving of scientific study only as an artificial production indirectly dependent on social life.Let an instrument of speech be formed,a social centre established,an opportunity for the rise of a literary class able to depend upon its handiwork be given,and only a strong current of national ideas,or absolute ignorance of foreign and ancient models,can prevent the production of imitative work whose materials and arrangement,no matter how unlike those characteristic of the group,may be borrowed from climates the most diverse,social conditions the most opposite,and conceptions of personal character belonging to totally different epochs.Especially likely is something of this kind to occur when the cultured few of a people comparatively uncivilised become acquainted with the literary models of men who have already passed through many grades of civilisation,and who can,as it seems,save them the time and trouble of nationally repeating the same laborious ascent.The imitative literature of Rome is a familiar example of such borrowing;and that of Russia looked for a time as if it were fated to follow French models almost as closely as Rome once followed the Greek.How certain this imitation of French models was to conceal the true national spirit of Russian life,to throw a veil of contemptuous ignorance over her barbarous past,and to displace in her literature the development of the nation by the caprice of a Russo-Gallic clique,none can fail to perceive.In a country whose social life was,and is,so largely based on the communal organisation of the Mir,or village community,the strongly-individualised literature of France became such a favorite source of imitation as to throw into the background altogether those folk-songs which the reviving spirit of national literature in Russia,and that of social study in Europe generally,are at length beginning to examine.This Russian imitation of France may be illustrated by the works of Prince Kantemir(1709-1743),who has been called“the first writer of Russia,”the friend of Montesquieu,and the imitator of Boileau and Horace in his epistles and satires;by those of Lomonossoff(1711-1765),“the first classical writer of Russia,”the pupil of Wolf,the founder of the University of Moscow,the reformer of the Russian language,who by academical Panegyrics on Peter the Great and Elizabeth sought to supply the want of that truly oratorical prose which only free assemblies can foster,attempted an epic Petreid in honor of the great Tsar,and modelled his odes on the French lyric poets and Pindar ;or by those of Soumarokoff,who,for the theatre of St.Petersburg established by Elizabeth,adapted or translated Corneille,Racine,Voltaire,much as Plautus and Terence had introduced the Athenian drama at Rome.As in Rome there had set in a conflict between old Roman family sentiments and the individualising spirit of the Greeks,as in Rome nobles of light and leading had been delighted to exchange archaic sentiments of family life and archaic measures like the Saturnian for the cultured thought and harmonious metres of Greece,so in Russia there set in a conflict between French individualism,dear to the court and nobles,and the social feelings of the Russian commune and family.The most ancient monuments of Russian thought—the Chronicle of the monk Nestor(1056-1116) and the Song of Igor—were as unlikely to attract the attention of such imitators as the Builinas and the folk-songs;and among a people who had never experienced the Western feudalism with its chivalrous poetry,to whom the Renaissance and Reformation had been unknown,came an imitation of Western progress which threatened for a time to prove as fatal to national literature as the imitation of Greek ideas had proved in Rome.In this European China,as Russia,with her family sentiments and filial devotion to the Tsar,has been called,French,and afterwards German and English,influences clearly illustrate the difficulties to which a scientific student of literature is exposed by imitative work out of keeping with social life;but the growing triumph of Russian national life as the true spring of Russian literature marks the want of real vitality in any literature dependent upon such foreign imitation.
§24.These internal and external aspects of literary growth are thus objects of comparative inquiry,because literatures are not Aladdin’s palaces raised by unseen hands in the twinkling of an eye,but the substantial results of causes which can be specified and described.The theory that literature is the detached life-work of individuals who are to be worshipped like images fallen down from heaven,not known as workers in the language and ideas of their age and place,and the kindred theory that imagination transcends the associations of space and time,have done much to conceal the relation of science to literature and to injure the works of both.But the“great-man theory”is really suicidal;for,while breaking up history and literature into biographies and thus preventing the recognition of any lines of orderly development,it would logically reduce not only what is known as“exceptional genius,”but all men and women,so far as they possess personality at all,to the unknown,the causeless—in fact,would issue in a sheer denial of human knowledge,limited or unlimited.On the other hand,the theory that imagination works out of space and time(Coleridge,for example,telling us that“Shakspere is as much out of time as Spenser out of space”)must not be repelled by any equally dogmatic assertion that it is limited by human experience,but is only to be refuted or established by such comparative studies as those on which we are about to enter.
The central point of these studies is the relation of the individual to the group.In the orderly changes through which this relation has passed,as revealed by the comparison of literatures belonging to different social states,we find our main reasons for treating literature as capable of scientific explanation.There are,indeed,other standpoints,profoundly interesting,from which the art and criticism of literature may also be explained—that of physical nature,that of animal life.But from these alone we shall not see far into the secrets of literary workmanship.We therefore adopt,with a modification hereafter to be noticed,the gradual expansion of social life,from clan to city,from city to nation,from both of these to cosmopolitan humanity,as the proper order of our studies in comparative literature.
(Hutcheson Macaulay Posnett.Comparative Literature.Memphis:General Books LLC TM ,2012.)
◉艾金伯勒
【导读】雷内·艾金伯勒(Rene Etiemble,1909—2002),通译艾田伯,法国著名学者、作家、文学评论家。他毕业于巴黎高等师范学院法律系,曾先后在美国、墨西哥和埃及等国家任教多年,国内曾执教于蒙彼利埃大学和巴黎大学,自1956年起,接任巴黎大学比较文学研究院院长,比较文学首席教授,直至1977年退休。作为比较文学学者,他的代表性学术著作有《比较不是理由》(1963)、《面向全球的比较理论》、《(真正的)总体文学论文集》(1974)、《世界文学论文集》(1982)、《中国之欧洲》(1988、1989)、《世界文学新论》(1992)等,其中《中国之欧洲》荣膺首届巴尔桑比较文学基金奖。他具有宏阔的东方视野和浓厚的“中国情结”,除了《中国之欧洲》外,写过《孔子》(1956)、《耶稣会士在中国》(1966)、《我信奉毛泽东主义的四十年》(1976),在索邦大学开设过题为《哲学的东方》(1957—1959)的课程,组织翻译了《水浒》《红楼梦》《金瓶梅》等中国古典名著。他在《比较不是理由》一书中提出“比较文学是人文主义”的观点,他主张把各民族文学看作全人类共同的精神财富,看作相互依赖的整体。《导读》所选章节为该书的第三部分,着重批评了法国学派从实证主义出发进行的影响研究只注意文学作品外部诸关系的偏向,主张把历史主义的影响研究和美学评价的平行研究相互结合,将案卷研究与本文阐释结合起来,将社会学家的审慎与美学家的大胆结合起来,进行新的探索。
是的,不管调和者作出怎样的努力,今天,在整个世界范围内,比较文学由于存在多种倾向而被划分开来,有时是被撕裂开来,其中,至少有两种倾向彼此极少谅解,一种倾向坚持认为,由于这门学科实质上是与历史研究同时产生的(甚至到了这样一种程度:似乎孟德斯鸠和伏尔泰因为对历史发生兴趣,同时也就规定了比较文学的某些原则),它一定是,而且也只能是文学史的分支;这里的“文学史”是就其依据、注重事实(cvcnementiel)的意义上来理解的,这是他们今天的说法,如果照我的说法,是就其堆积遗闻轶事的意义上来理解的。另一种倾向认为,即使两种文学并不存在历史的联系,对这两种文学根据各自用途发展起来的那些文学类型进行比较仍然是有理由的。借用哈佛大学的讲授中国文学的哈埃妥厄教授(JamesHightower)的话说,“甚至完全排除了直接影响的可能性”,比较文学不仅仍旧是可能的,而且事实上特别能激发思想。
某一阵营里聚集着这么一些人,他们以为,或者说自称他们是在把朗松 的历史方法运用于比较文学。但是他们老是忘掉它的实质,那就是,对这位最正统的文学史经典的创立者来说,历史方法远不能构成文学教学的本质特性,而只能够、事实上也只应当构成探讨文学的一种方法。这一点在朗松著名的《法国文学史》这部支配了我们的教学长达半个世纪的书中讲得很清楚。然而,这部书的用意却一直没有得到正确理解。人们是否读过书的序言?不管怎样,下面这段文字很值得推敲:
所以,我想不出一个人学习文学除了想提高自我修养外,还能出于什么其他理由;除了他喜欢它外,还能出于什么其他原因。无疑,那些打算当教师的人必须使他们的知识系统化,使他们的学习遵循一些方法,和那些仅仅作为文学的“业余爱好者”的人们相比,需要在他们的学习中运用更加精确的(如果他们愿意的话,我想说更加科学的)概念。但是,决不能忽视这两点:其一,如果他不能首先努力去培养学生对文学的鉴赏力的话,他将是个蹩脚的文学教师……其二,如果在成为学者前,他本身并不是个“业余爱好者”,那么,对于如何使他的教学富有这方面的成效,他就会不得要领。
你“成为学者之前”就一直在正确地阅读。普雷沃(JeanPrcvost)就把自己说成是“诗歌的业余爱好者”。普雷沃这位人文学者不仅翻译西班牙、英国、德国、现代希腊的诗歌,而且还在一位中国文学家的帮助下,借助一些拙劣的法文译作,翻译中国诗歌。普雷沃的杰作之一《诗歌爱好者》使他跻身于比较文学的忠实的解释者,也就是说,比较文学的忠实的信徒的行列;所以能这样,是因为这位作家能够遵奉朗松提出的那些要求,他第二次世界大战期间在里昂曾为一部著名的、出色的论述“司汤达的创作”的论文进行答辩,而同是这位作家,对一些中国诗人喜爱得如痴如醉(像他自己说的那样)。
在被盗用了的“朗松主义”的名义下,那些最低能的,因而也是最顽固的效颦者们,追随那位老一代的大师已有半个世纪,却仿佛他提出的先决条件是失效了的:对他们来说,那些最没有价值的文献汇编、遗闻轶事、附属文件构成了比较学者的工作的核心部分;无论怎么说,这些也是他们的范围以内的唯一的工作。某些法国学派的代表人物机械地将这种走了样的“朗松方法”运用到比较文学中来,而在朗松看来,历史的、信实的、确凿的研究是文学研究的前奏,作家欣赏的前奏[并且同时保证“业余爱好者”免受妄自尊大的批评,有关这类批评,勒梅特尔(JulesLemaitre)以及其他许多文学方面的报刊撰稿人在当时提供了出色的然而是令人沮丧的例子]。这些热心分子自作主张,把文学研究,甚至比较文学划入历史研究的范围。不过,甚至像让-马里·伽列这样眼光敏锐的大师,故世前不久在同意为基亚的《比较文学》撰写前言时,也犯了同样的错误。虽然急于想继巴登斯贝格和梵·第根之后划定我们学科的范围,他在下面这些话中还是没有给出这样一个定义,使我们确实应当称之为“法国式的”正统:
比较文学是文学史的分支,它研究国际性的精神联系,研究拜伦和普希金、歌德与卡莱尔、司格特与维尼之间的事实联系,研完不同文学的作家之间在作品、灵感,甚至生活方面的事实联系。
它不是主要探讨作品原有的价值,而是着重关心一些国家和作家如何改造他们借用来的东西……说到底,比较文学不是美国学校里教的那种“总体文学”。它最终可能导致总体文学的产生;对某些人来说,它必须这么做。但是,像人文主义、古典主义、浪漫主义、现实主义、象征主义这样的大略的平行关系(还有共时性关系,synchronisme),因为系统性过强、时空延展太开而有化成为抽象空泛、主观臆断的东西,只剩下些标签的危险。尽管比较文学能够领出条通向这些综合的路来,它本身并不能完成这些综合。
并不是说所有这些话在我看来都应当受到批评。为了把这些观念引向荒谬(但毕竟,这些观念往往是文学史家杜撰出来或加以系统化的),我从我们的历史学者的教科书里收罗了所有适合归类的欧洲前浪漫主义的题材:“自然”“情与景”“爱情与激情”“宿命”“敏感性”“过去的时光”“古代遗迹”,等等;随后我在蒙特贝里埃(Montepelier)大学开设了十八世纪末叶欧洲前浪漫主义的课程。我讲授了一门再正统不过的课,最后,我用这些话作结语:“我想指出,所有我用来评述欧洲前浪漫主义的诞生的引语均出自中国诗歌,从生活在纪元前的屈原到宋代。”我是以这种方式在为伽列的审慎辩护,并且为那些人辩护(同时也偷偷捅了他们一拳),他们认为,作家之间、流派之间或文学类型之间的“事实联系”的历史并没有穷尽我们这门学科的内容。原因在于,如果说我能够引用公元前和公元后十二个世纪的中国诗歌来解释十八世纪的前浪漫主义的所有题材的话,显而易见,这是因为那些形式存在着,类型存在着,不变因素存在着,一句话,有人存在,文学也就存在。
确实,像美国的雷内·韦勒克以及其他地方的许多人,他们是对的,这些人认为,比较文学史的研究与文学的比较研究是不一样的;文学是寓于人的自然语言之中的诸形式的系统;文学的比较研究不应局限于“事实联系”的研究,而必须尝试把研究导向对作品的价值的思考,甚至于(为什么不呢?)对作品进行价值评判,也许,依我的看法,它甚至应力图对新的价值标准的精心确定作出贡献,这些价值尺度和我们今天还靠它们度日或者说正因为它们我们才陷入险境的老的一套相比,在某种程度上要较少主观臆断的成分。
和让-玛丽·伽列一样,我相信,鉴于比较文学目前还处于童年时期,它还不能加入歌德的“世界文学”或美国的“总体文学”中去,事实上也不能加入到苏联的那个“世界文学”中去(我的苏联同行阿尼西莫夫最近告诉我说,莫斯科科学院正在编写一部“世界文学”史)。但我确信,它一定会将我们引向这种世界文学。我赞成雷内·韦勒克的意见:除非历史研究(法国和苏联学者们有理由重视它)的根本目的是使我们最终能来谈论文学,甚至总体文学、美学、修辞学,否则,比较文学注定会长时期完成不了自己的使命。德·多尔(GuillermodeTorre)的疑虑是有充分理由的,他感到奇怪,在当今的所有学科中,跟歌德说“世界文学”时设想的极相符合的那门学科怎么会不是比较文学呢。由于“总体文学”暗示出一般性,也就是近似的观念,这个提法让那些注重细枝末节的历史学者望而生畏;这一点是可以理解的。但当巴达庸反对这一提法时,谁又会对他这种相似的顾虑感到费解呢?他写道:“比较不过是我们称之为比较文学的那门学科的方法之一,而这个名称是相当词不达意的。我常常私下里想,总体文学是个较好一些的提法,而我马上就意识到采用这个新名称会带来的一些弊病,它会使人们只顾到一般原则,而不再去考虑那些活生生的作品之间的具体关系了。”
“给这门学科的词汇以更纯粹的意义”
最杰出的法国比较学者对我们学科的名称提出了疑问,由此看来,那些人是对的——而且这样的人很多——他们坚持认为,今天比较文学的首要任务是给这门学科使用的术语下定义,而首先是给它本身下定义。西欧比较学者正在计划制订和出版一部我们学科的术语词典,词典中对那些使用得极为频繁,同时也极无分寸的词的意义将从历史的角度加以澄清;在这一时刻,我们很愉快地获悉,在社会主义国家的科学院的主持下,于布达佩斯筹备组织的比较文学大会宣布了三项课题作为大会讨论的三个部分:1.比较文学当前面临的问题;2.在文学史中运用的术语的形成和变化;3.东欧文学的历史和比较的探讨:制订一部这些文学的比较史是否可能和必要?第一个部分是考察我们学科的对象和方法,第二个部分正确地强调了它的任务中的一项,它的未来还有赖于这些任务的完成。在了解下述情况方面,比较学者的地位不正是得天独厚的吗?——一旦我们进入抽象的领域,一种特定的语言的概念极少能与另一种语言的概念相一致;或确切地说,它们是部分一致的,每一个概念都由几个不同的外语的概念的一些部分组成,后者随所论及的那个语言而变化:在德语中,Volk充满着感情色彩和种族意味,而这在我们的people(人民)这个词中是不包含的。Völkisch根本不是populaire(大众的)的意思,倒是增添了一层rassisch的含义,这是一个可以翻译为racial(种族的)的准科学概念;这个词中的浪漫主义的和左派的色彩没有挽回它在纳粹影响下背离原意,转向可怕的“种族主义的”这个规范意义的厄运。在历史方面,德国古典主义与法国古典主义很少共同的特点,然而在美学方面,他们的确具有某些共同的特征。对我刚刚提到的在古代中国找到了欧洲前浪漫主义的所有题材这一点从历史方面又何以解释呢?而在美学方面,它们之间的类同之处迫使人们对此加以思考。这样,我们就得确定,在这种情况下,用“浪漫主义”这个名称是否还妥当。
而当我们碰到像“现实主义”,以及它的别称“批判现实主义”“社会现实主义”这样的词时,我们面对着一个谜。不管从意识形态上说是属于社会主义世界还是属于资本主义世界,专家们在过去的三十年里对这些词的含义一直争论不休。随着日丹诺夫主义的结束,也许可能在某一天看到他们达成一致。这一点在布达佩斯是以这种方式显示的:一些教授对卢卡契发表保留意见时,主要是抱怨这位理论家在拿巴尔扎克和托尔斯泰——唯一可敬的现实主义作家——与自然主义作家左拉作强烈对照时做得过火了(这使我回想起这位匈牙利批评家大约三十年前在我面前展示的类同的两个辉煌场面:《安娜·卡列尼娜》和《娜娜》中的赛马场面;自然主义遭到痛斥,而现实主义得到赞许);而且,一些民主德国和波兰的比较学者已经认识到,“现实主义”这个词被滥用了、歪曲了,已经失去了一切意味。路易·阿拉贡不久前在布拉格发表的演讲也许与这种令人庆幸的逆转不无关系;路易·阿拉贡于1953年在西欧创立了“社会现实主义”的理论,而到1962年,他作出了对这个问题的重新思考,这为他赢得了声誉,鉴于这一点,人们可以认为,全世界的比较学者在每个术语的规定含义方面将能够很快获得统一;这并非是天真幼稚的想法。
(于永昌,等.比较文学研究译文集[M].戴耘,译.上海:上海译文出版社,1985.)
1.Steiner,George.何为比较文学[M]//No Passion Spent.New Haven:Yale University Press,1996:142-159.
《何为比较文学》一文收录在乔治·斯坦纳的散文集《未耗尽的激情》中,该文是作者多年教学及研究的思想核心。在文章中,作者开门见山地点出“比较”在人文艺术学科的重要性,但同时否认了现行的比较文学“方法论”,他认为“方法论”只有在科学领域有确凿的意义和可证伪的标准,但在人文学科领域却难以实现。因此,作为学科的比较文学应关注三个领域,首先是翻译研究,其次是文本在时空中的传播与接受,最后是主题研究。作者强调,只有在比较文学学科领域,这三方面才会形成创造性的互动。
2.曹顺庆.比较文学学科史[M].成都:巴蜀书社,2010.
全书分三编,内容主要涵盖比较文学学科发展的三个阶段。第一编关注以“法国学派”为代表的影响研究时期,同时涉及德、英、俄等国的比较文学发展状况。第二编聚焦以“美国学派”为代表的平行研究时期,同时介绍了平行研究的特点及局限。第三编侧重以“中国学派”为代表的跨文明研究时期,主要探讨了中国和日本等国家或地区,在面对比较文学学科中存在的“西方中心主义”倾向,所作出的积极回应。书中特别提到了比较文学的“史前史”,论述了在比较文学学科形成之前,存在于不同国家文化史中的比较渊源和方法。
3.H.J.Schulz,P.H.Rhein.Comparative Literature:The Early Years[M].North Carolina:The University of North Carolina Press,1973.
舒尔茨和雷因主编的《早期比较文学论文集》是一本侧重于比较文学资料汇编的论文集。书中主要收录了比较文学渊源和发展时期的相关资料,对比较文学学科建设提供资料和史实方面的支持。值得一提的是,书中收录了7段歌德对“世界文学”的论述。尽管歌德最早提出“世界文学”,但其有关探讨均散落在论著、书信、对话和日记中,这本书的出现很好地弥补了这一缺憾。这7段短论除了一篇出自J.P.艾克曼的《歌德谈话录》之外,其余6篇均摘自《歌德全集》,在一定程度上还原了歌德对“世界文学”的构思和探讨。