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第四节

选题动机与研究思路

如上所述,因为考察时段局限于1896年之前,冼玉仪有关东华医院早期历史的研究并不涉及1897年东华医院引入西医之后的历史。不过,在某种程度上,她已点出了本书试图考察的一个核心问题,即殖民地的西方医学与本土医学之间的相互关系,以及西方医学的推进及主导地位的确立在多大程度上体现了殖民权力的实施与运作,及其背后所隐藏的殖民主义意识形态与文化价值观念。正如她所指出的:

传染病使得西医医生对东华医院的巡视和干涉成为一种例行程序。之前,中医只是作为一种不幸的现象被藐视或忽视,但是现在西医医生开始直面这个问题。他们可能阐述西方医学的优越性,并试图以此启迪中国人和在思想上赢得他们的支持与认可,但最终他们借助国家强制力量(state's coercive power)的支持强加他们的观点。……在一个殖民地的处境中,强迫一个致力于本土医学实践的机构接受西方医学就已体现了文化帝国主义(cultural imperialism)的特征,而且,代表西方医学的政府干预将一场文化和思想冲突转换为一种社会和政治对抗。 [1]

其实,这个问题便是学术界争论相当激烈的殖民医学(colonial medicine)的研究范畴。 [2] 这个争论的焦点在于:在殖民地推行的西方医学是帝国统治的工具,抑或是对被殖民者的恩惠与福利?

从18世纪欧洲帝国向外扩张以来,因为帝国统治的需要和殖民地医疗与公共卫生的需求,逐渐有发展殖民医学的呼声。在很长的一段时间中,在欧洲殖民主义的历史叙述中,医学在殖民地的发展被视为英雄般地对抗殖民地疾病的手段,是殖民者对殖民地的一大贡献。这种史观基本上是立足于殖民者的角度以肯定殖民统治对殖民地公共卫生与医疗事业发展的贡献,它显然忽视了殖民统治对于殖民地所造成的消极影响,更重要的是忽视了殖民地疾病的暴发和蔓延与帝国扩张的关系。即使在殖民主义持续衰弱之际,许多学者仍然坚持医学是殖民主义中较值得称颂或唯一的优点;他们有证据证明,不管殖民主义怎样不利于政治,它还是给非洲人和亚洲人带来了实际的利益。 [3]

不过,从20世纪60年代开始,就陆续有学者开始质疑这种殖民医学的人道主义宣称,从过去的胜利者的眼光转变为反思医学与殖民主义的经济、政治及文化史间的相互关系。他们认为医学俨然是一种殖民者向殖民地推进殖民势力、实施政治权威与社会控制的有力工具。 法国思想家弗兰兹·法农(Franz Fanon)引领了这方面的研究,他认为殖民医疗服务的组织机制是更为广泛的殖民体系的一个基本组成部分。他严厉地指出,“在殖民地,医生是殖民主义、压制和剥削的重要组成部分……医生和医学教授是殖民主义运动的领导者……在他们的最为可怕的和可耻的实践中,欧洲医生积极地与殖民当局共谋。” [4]

沿着这种思考方向,医学逐渐被建构为帝国统治的工具,丹尼尔·赫德里克(Daniel Headrick)在《帝国工具:19世纪的技术与欧洲帝国主义》一书中指出,包括医学在内的各种技术都是欧洲列强得以殖民成功的关键因素。 [5] 在这种学术脉络下,学者们开始全方位地反思殖民医学,卡尔·帕特森(Karl David Patterson)、罗伊·麦克劳德(Roy MacLeod)和大卫·阿诺(David Arnold)等人继续探讨了殖民医学的相关议题,包括西方医学(包括公共卫生)如何成为帝国统治与殖民扩张的工具,西方医学为何是帝国意识形态与文化价值观念的一个组成部分,以及西方医学如何成为赢得被殖民者支持与信赖的手段。 [6]

尽管有些学者也会注意到殖民医学给被殖民者带来的可能好处,不过,总体上当前的殖民医学研究过分地突出了西方医学对于推动殖民统治的意义、对被殖民者的压制及其消极影响,更有学者认为殖民医疗服务实际上是帝国统治的霸权过程(hegemonic process of imperial rule)的一部分。假如暂且认同这些观点,那么我们要问,作为帝国统治工具的西方医学对于当地人健康的改善起着多大的作用?这个工具的社会和经济成本是什么?殖民当局利用这个工具的背后动机是什么?西方医学的殖民性是不是一定会影响殖民医学可能带来的有利于被殖民者的积极结果?殖民医学服务的对象在这个被称之为霸权建立的过程中又是一种怎样的体验?他(她)们是消极的、被动的接受者又或是积极的、主动的参与者?面对这些问题,如果我们的焦点始终集中于殖民者的身上,始终以殖民者的帝国利益为考虑的出发点,那么就永远无法捕捉到被殖民者的真实体验。 [7]

正因如此,本书试图通过对东华三院中西医服务变迁的考察来分析西方医学如何成为加强殖民统治与传播帝国意识形态与文化价值观念的重要手段,西方医学在多大程度上有助于改善和提高当地人的健康与医疗水平,以及作为西方医学接受者的华人大众与作为被西方医学排斥对象的中医又是如何理解与看待西方医学的。因此,本书的考察不仅关注西方医学扩张过程中殖民权力的自上而下的运作与实施过程,同时也强调来自被压制对象的针对殖民权力的自下而上的抵抗策略。当然,本书也强调面对被殖民者的抵抗,殖民权力的实施者在不影响其统治根本利益的情况下,也会适度地做出某些让步与妥协,以避免过度干涉与压制而可能造成的更为激烈的抵抗活动。

综观目前有关殖民医学的研究现状,可以发现大部分研究都是基于对西方医学在整个殖民地社会的传播过程的考察,这种考察主要围绕殖民医疗服务、殖民地公共卫生以及疾病控制与预防的分析。这种研究方法显然忽视了殖民地社会的地区差异,其中涉及政治、经济、文化等诸多因素,而将整个殖民地社会视为一个西方医学传播的同质空间。就以殖民地社会的城乡差别来说,殖民政府在城市与农村地区推动西方医学发展与扩张的策略与途径也是相当不同的。

但在做出宏观比较之前,细致深入的具体分析则是基础。因此,将考察对象集中于一个诸如医院的医疗空间则有助于我们从更微观的视角审视西方医学传播与扩张的基本特征及其背后所潜藏的殖民主义逻辑。在某种意义上,医院作为伴随殖民主义而输出的一种西方发明,它不仅是西方医学全球化的传播渠道, [8] 同时也是现代医学实践的关键场所以及医疗权威(medical authority)和西方文化的强势象征。 [9] 正因如此,通过对于医院的微观分析将有助于更好地考察西方医学与殖民权力之间的互动关系。

那么,又为什么是东华医院(三院),而不是政府医院、教会医院或私家医院呢?显然,这种选择也直接反映了东华医院相对于其他医院的另类特征所在。正如冼玉仪所指出的,东华医院之所以被视为华人医院,不仅是因为由华人管理和为华人患者服务,而且更为重要的原因是它根据中医中药方法进行治疗。 [10] 因此,东华医院是一种混合和具有中式内容的西式医院,即所谓的“西瓶装中酒”(Chinese wine in a Western bottle)。 [11] 与当时在中国出现的教会医院和港英政府医院不同,它们尽管为中国人提供服务,却是由西方人管理和根据西医方法治疗的。在某种意义上,东华医院被认为是近代中国历史上第一家完全按照西方医院标准设计的中医医院。而它也成为此种医院模式的典范,在东华医院创建之后,澳门镜湖医院(Jinghu Hospital,1871年创建)、广州广济医院(Guangji Hospital,1893年创建)和方便医院(Fangbian Hospital,1901年创建)、新加坡同济医院(Thong Chai Medical Institution,1885年提议并于1892年落成)、旧金山东华医院(Donghua Hospital of San Francisco,1888年提议创建,不过该计划因美国政府不承认中医生医疗资格而最终难产;1900年旧金山华人创办东华诊所,1925年该诊所发展成为一家华人医院)、越南堤岸福善医院(Fushan Hospital,1901年创建)和广肇医院(Guangzhao Hospital,1907年创建)、以及泰国曼谷天华医院(Tianhua Hospital,1907年创建)等华人医院也在中国和海外华人社会中纷纷创建。 [12]

医院作为一种医疗空间,对于当时中国人来说是相对陌生的,在中国传统社会中,人们求医方式基本上是到私人诊所(诊所基本上也是家的一部分)就医或邀请医生到家诊疗。 东华医院却以华人熟悉的中医中药为内核而逐渐减少了他们对于西方医院这一新式医疗空间的陌生感。 因此,在短短的时间内,东华医院便广受华人社会的欢迎;相反,华人对于政府医院仍然具有相当的排斥与抵制情绪。可是,作为医疗空间的东华医院很快就遭受来自欧人社会与政府医官的批评,他们视这种不中不西的华人医院为一种灾难,更怀疑其是否可以被称为“医院”。显然,在西方人或政府医官的眼中,东华医院已经成为维护和助长被西方医学视为迷信、落后与无知的中国医学的顽固堡垒。在他们看来,如果要彻底根除东华医院的医疗暴行与潜在弊端,唯有向其渗透和扩张西方医学。毫无疑问,东华医院这一医疗空间已经成为西方医学与本土医学相互角逐的竞争场所。

正是在这个意义上,通过考察东华三院的西医引入及其中西医医疗服务的变迁将有助于我们了解西方医学与本土医学之间错综复杂的多元关系,其中不仅包含西方医学的扩张性与侵略性,同时也涉及本土医学的防御性与抵抗性。如果选择政府医院或其他西医医院,或许我们只能看到西方医学在一个医疗空间中的单向传播和扩张过程,而无法了解本土医学为了生存而采取的应对与抵制策略。

除了东华三院的这种独特特征之外,本书选择东华三院作为考察对象的另一个考虑是基于它的多重功能,即东华三院不仅是救济空间和医疗空间,同时它还是一个准政治空间。显然,对于这种多重空间性质及其空间性质变革的考察将有助于我们从更为多元的视角审视东华与华人社会和港英政府之间的多重关系。

正是基于上述多重考虑,本书试图以1894~1941年,东华三院引入西医的过程,西医引入之后中西医的互动关系以及中医不断萎缩和西医不断扩张的历史过程为叙事主轴,进而考察围绕东华三院中西医服务而发生的港英政府与华人社会之间、港英政府与东华三院之间、东华三院与华人社会之间、以及西医(生)与中医(生)之间的复杂关系。而这些复杂关系背后隐藏的则是殖民权力的微妙运作过程以及它对东华这一医疗空间的渗透与改造意图。本书最后则以上述内容为基础而总结性地分析在东华三院中西医服务变迁过程中殖民权力的运作特征以及它对东华三院医疗空间性质的影响。

通过概括性分析,本书最后得出两点初步结论。第一,为促进东华三院的西医化进程,港英政府通过多层官僚体系并利用鼠疫危机和财政危机积极推动东华西医的引入、扩张乃至霸权的确立,从而加强对东华三院的进一步干预与控制,这充分体现了在西医霸权确立和东华控制过程中殖民权力所体现的压制性与支配性的一面。

不过,这仅仅是殖民权力的一个面向,除强制和压迫手段之外,霸权的形成和确立还依赖于被统治者对统治者主流意识形态和文化价值观念的默认或接受。体现在本书中,这种主流意识形态和文化价值观念便是港英政府和政府医官所建构的关于西医优越性与西方文明性的论述话语。

随着港英政府通过各种渠道对于西方医学与公共卫生宣传与教育的推动以及东华三院西医服务的发展,作为西医服务接受者的华人患者、作为医院管理者的华人董事局以及作为中医维护者的中医医生都开始逐渐认可和接受这套有关西医优越性的话语论述,并在实际行动中支持与推动东华西医服务的进一步发展。显然,在短短的40多年间,东华三院西医服务之所以如此迅速获得华人的认可与接受,不是单靠政府或西医的强制推行所能实现的,其中一个更为关键的因素是华人对于西医治疗效果的主动体认。

当然,殖民权力的运作并不是单向的,除了由殖民者施加的政治支配与意识形态支配之外,殖民权力也会遭到被殖民者的各种形式的消极或积极抵抗。同时,面对被殖民者的抵抗,殖民权力的实施者在不影响其统治根本利益的情况下,也会适度地做出某些调整与让步。

第二,在殖民权力的干涉下,东华三院空间多样性的特征在不断发生改变,以体现东华三院慈善精神的救济空间不断被体现医疗化趋势的医疗空间所取代。而就东华三院作为医疗空间而言,殖民权力的主要目标是实现这一空间从传统中医医疗空间向现代西医医疗空间的转换。综观东华三院中西医服务的变化趋势,可以看到东华三院从一个纯粹的中医医院逐步发展为中西医共存的医疗空间,而到20世纪40年代,就其留医(住院)服务来说,东华三院更是成为一个以西方医学为唯一治疗方法的西医医院。

而新旧医疗空间的转变,其背后体现的更是不同权力关系的消长。在某种意义上,中医空间的萎缩与消亡其实反映的是东华三院作为一个华人准政治空间所拥有的政治影响力与社会代表性的日渐衰退。 更为重要的是,东华三院医疗空间性质的变化凸显了空间的象征性力量,即从中医空间向西医空间的转变不仅是西医服务的扩张,更是西方医学科学性与优越性这一体现殖民现代性的意识形态与文化价值观念对于被殖民者宰制的确立,或者说被殖民者所默认和接受。

当然,权力的运作离不开物质空间的支持,正如法国著名思想家米歇尔·福柯(Michel Foucault)所指出的,“空间是任何权力运作的基础”, [13] “空间是权力、知识等话语转化成实际权力关系的关键”。 显然,东华三院作为医疗空间有助于殖民权力向华人社会的“毛细血管式”的微观渗透,并以此规范华人的医疗观念与实践和遏制东华三院董事局作为华人社会的政治力量而可能产生和扩张的反殖民影响力。上述权力与空间的互动关系也点出了本书选择“殖民权力与医疗空间”为题的原因与意义所在。 [14]


[1] 综观目前有关近代中国西医东渐的研究现状,可以发现大部分成果都是基于对西方医学在整个中国传播过程的考察,主要涉及医疗传教、中西医交流与论争、医疗制度与公共卫生事业、西医教育、西医专科发展以及西医代表人物和群体等主题。代表性成果可参阅Carl F.Nathan, Plague Prevention and Politics in Manchuria ,1910-1931,Cambridge: East Asian Research Center,Harvard University,1967; Ralph C.Croizier, Traditional Medicine in Modern China:Science,Nationalism,and the Tensions of Cultural Change ,Cambridge: Harvard University Press,1968; Theron Kue-Hing Young,“A Conflict of Professions: The Medical Missionary in China,” Bulletin of the History of Medicine ,Vol.47,No.3,1973,pp.250-272; John Z.Bowers, Western Medicine in a Chinese Palace:Peking Union Medical College ,1917-1951,New York: Josiah Macy,Jr.Foundation,1974; Mary Brown Bullock, An American Transplant:The Rockefeller Foundation and Peking Union Medical College ,Berkeley: University of California Press,1980; Sheila M.Hillier and J.A.Jewell, Health Care and Traditional Medicine in China ,1800-1982,London and New York: Routledge,1983; Kerrie L.Macpherson, A Wilderness of Marshes:The Origins of Public Health in Shanghai ,1843-1893,Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press,1987; 赵洪钧:《近代中西医论争史》,安徽科学技术出版社,1989;Gerald H.Choa,“ Heal the Sick Was Their Motto:The Protestant Medical Missionaries in China ,Hong Kong: Chinese University Press,1990; Ka-che Yip, Health and National Reconstruction in Nationalist China:The Development of Modern Health Services ,1928-1937,Ann Arbor: Association for Asian Studies,1995; Ruth Rogaski, Hygienic Modernity:Meanings of Health and Disease in Treaty - Port China ,Berkeley: University of California Press,2004; 杨念群:《再造“病人”:中西医冲突下的空间政治,1832-1985年》,中国人民大学出版社,2006和2013;何小莲:《西医东渐与文化调适》,上海古籍出版社,2006;高晞:《德贞传:一个英国传教士与晚清医学近代化》,复旦大学出版社,2009;Iris Borowy (ed.), Uneasy Encounters:The Politics of Medicine and Health in China 1900-1937,New York: Peter Lang,2009; Angela Ki Che Leung and Charlotte Furth (eds.), Health and Hygiene in Chinese East Asia:Policies and Publics in the Long Twentieth Century ,Durham: Duke University Press,2010; Guangqiu Xu, American Doctors in Canton:Modernization in China ,1835-1935,New Brunswick: Transaction Publishers,2011; Tina Phillips Johnson, Childbirth in Republican China:Delivering Modernity ,Lanham: Lexington Books,2011; Connie A.Shemo, The Chinese Medical Ministries of Kang Cheng and Shi Meiyu ,1872-1937: On a Cross - Cultural Frontier of Gender,Race,and Nation ,Bethlehem: Lehigh University Press,2011; Bridie Andrews, The Making of Modern Chinese Medicine ,1850-1960,Vancouver: University of British Columbia,2014; Sean Hsiang-lin Lei, Neither Donkey Nor Horse:Medicine in the Struggle Over China ' s Modernity ,Chicago: University of Chicago Press,2014; Mary Brown Bullock and Bridie Andrews (eds.), Medical Transitions in Twentieth - Century China ,Bloomington: Indiana University Press,2014; Liping Bu, Public Health and the Modernization of China ,1865-2015,London and New York: Routledge,2017; Faith C.S.Ho, Western Medicine for Chinese:How the Hong Kong College of Medicine Achieved a Breakthrough ,Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press,2017.

[2] 即葛兰西所谓的“文化霸权”(cultural hegemony)或“道德和思想领导权”(moral and intellectual leadership)。在葛兰西看来,霸权的形成与确立不仅依赖于由监狱和法院等政治社会(political society)所建立的强制性政治支配,同时,它也强调通过学校和家庭等市民社会(civil society)实现被统治者对统治者主流意识形态与价值观念的默认与接受。详细内容可以参阅Antonio Gramsci, Selections from the Prison Notebooks of Antonio Gramsci ,edited and translated by Quintin Hoare and Geoffrey Nowell Smith,London:Lawrence & Wishart,1971。另外,有关葛兰西的霸权理论可参阅Walter L.Adamson, Hegemony and Revolution:Antonio Gramsci ' s Political and Cultural Theory ,Berkeley: University of California Press,1980; George Hoare and Nathan Sperber, An Introduction to Antonio Gramsci:His Life,Thought and Legacy ,London and New York: Bloomsbury Academic,2016.

[3] 需要指出的是,东华医院从创建开始就一直为华人社会提供牛痘接种服务,这当然是东华医院与西方医学有着紧密关系的重要例证。不过,一般来说,东华医院引入西医始于1897年,而之前不管在门诊还是留医服务方面都只是采用中医药治疗方法,因此仍然被视为一家纯粹的中医医院。有关东华种痘服务的研究可以参阅 Annual Report of the Colonial Surgeon for 1875,Hong Kong;“Vaccination in China,” Medical Times and Gazette ,October 1,1881,p.421;“Hong-Kong,” The Lancet ,May 6,1882,pp.758-759;J.Dyer Ball, Things Chinese,Or Notes Connected with China ,London:John Murrary,Fouth edition,Revised and Enlarged,1904,pp.760-761;Elizabeth Sinn, Power and Charity:The Early History of the Tung Wah Hospital,Hong Kong ,Hong Kong:Oxford University Press,1989,pp.65-67;帆刈浩之:《近代香港天花流行与中医药的社会化》,发表于“社会文化视野下的中国疾病医疗史研究”国际研讨会(天津:南开大学中国社会史研究中心,2006年8月11-14日);Hong Kong Museum of Medical Sciences Society, Plague,SARS and the Story of Medicine in Hong Kong ,Hong Kong:Hong Kong University Press,2006,pp.23-26;Michael Ingham, Hong Kong:A Cultural History ,Oxford:Oxford University Press,2007,p.113.

[4] Annual Report of the Medical Department for 1938,Hong Kong.

[5] Elizabeth Sinn, Power and Charity:The Early History of the Tung Wah Hospital,Hong Kong ,Hong Kong: Oxford University Press,1989,pp.18-22; John M.Carroll, A Concise History of Hong Kong ,Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers,2007,pp.40-41; Chak Kwan Chan, Social Security Policy in Hong Kong:From British Colony to China ' s Special Administrative Region ,Lanham: Lexington Books,2011,pp.68-70; 何启龙:《槟城、新加坡与香港开埠初期华人义冢之碑铭:华人移民社会的互助殓葬服务》,《元史及民族与边疆研究集刊》(第三十辑),2015,第195-198页;Pui-yin Ho, Making Hong Kong:A History of Its Urban Development ,Northampton: Edward Elgar Publishing,2018,pp.60-61.

[6] 有关义祠历史、义祠丑闻事调查报告以及东华医院创建过程和开幕仪式,请参阅1896年东华医院调查报告: Report of the Commission appointed by His Excellency the Governor to enquire into the Working and Organization of the Tung Wa Hospital together with the Evidence taken before the Commission and other Appendices ,Hong Kong,1896,Appendix,pp.V-XLVII,该报告简称为“ Tung Wah Commission Report ”。

[7] 国家医院创建于1848年,在1937年政府建立玛丽医院(Queen Mary Hospital)之前,这家被称为香港最高级别的政府医院却一直在改建的非医疗用途的建筑物和性病医院中运作,足见当时政府医院的条件并不是很好。有关国家医院的基本沿革和玛丽医院的发展历史,可以参阅Fung Chi-ming, A History of Queen Mary Hospital Hong Kong ,1937-1997,Hong Kong:Queen Mary Hospital,1997;杨祥银、王鹏:《19世纪末20世纪初香港的医院体系》,《社会科学战线》2013年第6期,第92~97页。

[8] Ernest John Eitel, Europe in China:The History of Hongkong from the Beginning to the Year 1882,London: Luzac & Company,1895,p.462.

[9] 《1896年调查东华医院委员会报告书》,罗文锦等译,东华医院,1929,第9页。该报告书即上述“ Tung Wah Commission Report ”的中文译本。麦当奴总督函件英文原文可以参阅Governor to the Secretary of State,June 21,1869,in Tung Wah Commission Report ,Appendix,pp.XX-XXIII.

[10] Isabella L.Bird, The Golden Chersonese and the Way Thither ,New York:G.P.Putnam's Sons,1883,p.109; Sir George William Des Vux, My Colonial Service in British Guiana,St . Lucia,Trinidad,Fiji,Australia,Newfoundland,and Hong Kong,with Interludes (Volume 2),London:John Murray,1903,pp.199-200.

[11] 该条例又称《倡建东华医院总例》,其英文全称为 An Ordinance enacted by the Governor of Hong Kong with the Advice of the Legislative Council thereof,for establishing a Chinese Hospital to be supported by Voluntary Contributions,and for erecting the same into an Eleemosynary Corporation 。有关该条例详细内容请参阅, Hong Kong Government Gazette ,April 2,1870,pp.151-153.

[12] Report of the Acting Principal Civil Medical Officer for 1900,Hong Kong.

[13] Annual Report of the Colonial Surgeon for 1872,Hong Kong.

[14] Annual Report of the Colonial Surgeon for 1872,Hong Kong.

[15] Annual Report of the Colonial Surgeon for 1872,Hong Kong.

[16] Report of the Commission appointed by His Excellency the Governor to enquire into the Working and Organization of the Tung Wa Hospital together with the Evidence taken before the Commission and other Appendices ,Hong Kong,1896.

[17] 有关该医院的历史可以参阅区结成主编《九龙医院七十周年》,九龙医院,1997;Cindy Yik-yi Chu, The Maryknoll Sisters in Hong Kong ,1921-1969: In Love With the Chinese ,New York:Palgrave Macmillan,2004,pp.32-34.

[18] Annual Report of the Registrar General for 1906,Hong Kong.

[19] Annual Report of the Registrar General for 1911,Hong Kong;《百载悬壶·广济华胞:6·29广华医院百年庆典启动礼》,《东华通讯》2011年8月号,第1页;《从油麻地的发展看广华医院的建立》,《东华通讯》2011年8月号,第4页。

[20] Annual Report of the Secretary for Chinese Affairs for 1922,Hong Kong.

[21] Annual Report of the Secretary for Chinese Affairs for 1929,Hong Kong.

[22] Annual Report of the Medical Department for 1932,Hong Kong.

[23] Annual Report of the Secretary for Chinese Affairs for 1939,Hong Kong.

[24] Henry J.Lethbridge,“A Chinese Association in Hong Kong:The Tung Wah,” Contributions to Asian Studies ,Vol.1,1971,pp.144-158.该文于1978年重新收入他的著作中,详细内容参阅Henry J.Lethbridge, Hong Kong,Stability and Change:A Collection of Essays ,Hong Kong:Oxford University Press,1978,pp.52-70.类似研究还可以参阅Ian Scott, Political Change and the Crisis of Legitimacy in Hong Kong ,Honolulu :University of Hawaii Press,1989,pp.49-53;John M.Carroll, Edge of Empires:Chinese Elites and British Colonials in Hong Kong ,Cambridge:Harvard University Press,2005,pp.60-83;刘曼容:《利用与吻合:港英政府借助香港华人文化传统提高施政效率》,《学术研究》2005年第12期,第76~81页。

[25] Carl T.Smith,“The Emergence of a Chinese Elite in Hong Kong,” Journal of the Hong Kong Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society ,Vol.11,1971,pp.74-115;Carl T.Smith,“Notes on Tung Wah Hospital,Hong Kong,” Journal of the Hong Kong Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society ,Vol.16,1976,pp.263-280;Carl T.Smith, A Sense of History:Studies in the Social and Urban History of Hong Kong ,Hong Kong:Hong Kong Educational Publishing Company,1995,pp.64-86;Carl T.Smith, Chinese Christians:Elites,Middlemen,and the Church in Hong Kong ,Hong Kong:Hong Kong University Press,2005,pp.103-138.

[26] Elizabeth Sinn, Power and Charity:The Early History of the Tung Wah Hospital,Hong Kong ,Hong Kong:Oxford University Press,1989.该书在2003年再版中,不仅将原书的副标题改为 A Chinese Merchant Elite in Colonial Hong Kong ,而且还增加新版序言。另外,该书是根据其博士论文修改而成的,详细内容参阅Elizabeth Sinn,“The Tung Wah Hospital,1869-1896:A Study of a Medical,Social and Political Institution in Hong Kong,” (Ph.D.dissertation,Hong Kong:University of Hong Kong,1986)。需要指出的是,冼玉仪在后来的研究中也曾涉及东华医院(三院),不过其主要观点大体保持不变,详细内容参阅Elizabeth Sinn,“Chinese Patriarchy and the Protection of Women in 19th-Century Hong Kong,” in Maria Jaschok and Suzanne Miers (eds.), Women and Chinese Patriarchy:Submission,Servitude,and Escape ,Hong Kong:Hong Kong University Press,1994,pp.141-169;Elizabeth Sinn,“Moving Bones:Hong Kong's Role as an ‘In-between Place’ in the Chinese Diaspora,” in David Strand and Sherman Cochran (eds.), Cities in Motion:Interior,Coast,and Diaspora in Transnational China ,Berkeley:Institute of East Asian Studies,University of California,2007,pp.247-271;Elizabeth Sinn,“Hong Kong as an In-between Place in the Chinese Diaspora,” in Donna R.Gabaccia and Dirk Hoerder (eds.), Connecting Seas and Connected Ocean Rims:Indian,Atlantic,and Pacific Oceans and China Seas Migrations from the 1830 s to the 1930 s ,Boston:Brill,2011,pp.225-250;Elizabeth Sinn, Pacific Crossing:California Gold,Chinese Migration,and the Making of Hong Kong ,Hong Kong:Hong Kong University Press,2013,pp.83-92;Elizabeth Sinn,“Wang Tao in Hong Kong and the Chinese ‘Other’,” in Elizabeth Sinn and Christopher Munn (eds.), Meeting Place:Encounters across Cultures in Hong Kong ,1841-1984,Hong Kong:Hong Kong University Press,2017,pp.1-22.

[27] Elizabeth Sinn, Power and Charity:The Early History of the Tung Wah Hospital,Hong Kong ,Hong Kong:Oxford University Press,1989,p.6.

[28] Chan Wai Kwan,“The Emergency of Leadership Among the Chinese Population,and the Tung Wah Hospital,” in Chan Wai Kwan, The Making of Hong Kong Society:Three Studies of Class Formation in Early Hong Kong ,Oxford:Clarendon Press,1991,pp.63-104.相关研究还可以参阅David Faure (ed.), Society:A Documentary History of Hong Kong ,Hong Kong:Hong Kong University Press,1997,pp.57-116;Christopher Munn, Anglo - China:Chinese People and British Rule in Hong Kong ,1841-1880,Hong Kong:Hong Kong University Press,2001,pp.329-378;Steve Tsang, A Modern History of Hong Kong ,Hong Kong:Hong Kong University Press,2004,pp.67-72;Steve Tsang, Governing Hong Kong:Administrative Officers from the 19 th Century to the Handover to China ,1862-1997,Hong Kong:Hong Kong University Press,2007,pp.27-50;余迅翎:《东华医院与近代香港华人社会》(广州:暨南大学硕士论文,2008);Wing Sang Law, Collaborative Colonial Power:The Making of the Hong Kong Chinese ,Hong Kong:Hong Kong University Press,2009,pp.7-29;Shu-Yun Ma,“Power,Accidents,and Institutional Changes:The Case of a Chinese Hospital in Hong Kong,” Continuity and Change ,Vol.27,No.1,2012,pp.151-174.

[29] Zhou Hong,“The Origins of Government Social Protection Policy in Hong Kong,1842-1941,” (Ph.D.dissertation,Waltham:Brandies University,1992),pp.52-66,80-88,148-159,239-254.从慈善组织、非政府组织、社会工作与教育等视角来探讨东华三院的研究成果可以参阅Leung Yan Fun,“Organizational Development in the Tung Wah Group of Hospitals,” (Master Thesis,Hong Kong:University of Hong Kong,1983);Anthony Sweeting, Education in Hong Kong,Pre -1841 to 1941: Fact and Opinion,Hong Kong :Hong Kong University Press,1990(该书大量内容涉及东华三院);Jung-fang Tsai, Hong Kong in Chinese History:Community and Social Unrest in the British Colony ,1842-1913,New York:Columbia University Press,1993,pp.65-102;文菲:《香港的慈善机构:东华三院和保良局》,《港澳经济》1998年第2期,第47页;陈伟超:《慈善广告中的助人故事:东华三院、香港公益金、香港乐施会慈善文本研究》(香港:香港中文大学哲学硕士论文,2008);郭智强:《多渠道解决我国NGO的资金瓶颈问题:来自香港东华三院的启示》,《东莞理工学院学报》2008年第6期,第40-44页;郑远长:《东华三院的社会福利和慈善实践及其启示》,《社会福利》2009年第2期,第41-42页;陈全柏:《当代香港慈善组织的社会整合功能研究:以香港东华三院为例》(广州:华南师范大学硕士论文,2011);Chak Kwan Chan,Social Security Policy in Hong Kong:From British Colony to China's Special Administrative Region,Lanham:Lexington Books,2011(该书大量内容涉及东华三院);蔡青:《香港东华三院社会工作和慈善工作的启示》,《社会福利》2012年第5期,第45页;Huei-Ying Kuo, Networks Beyond Empires:Chinese Business and Nationalism in the Hong Kong - Singapore Corridor ,1914-1941,Leiden:Brill,2014(该书大量内容涉及东华三院);杨逸歌:《中国大型慈善组织慈善资金获取源探讨:以香港东华三院慈善事业资金获取渠道为例》,《郑州大学学报》(哲学社会科学版)2014年第4期,第28-31页;王定华、李静波:《香港东华三院基础教育考察报告》,《基础教育参考》2014年第7期,第8-11页;胡水玉:《近代香港东华医院内地慈善活动研究(1870-1949)》(长沙:湖南师范大学硕士论文,2017);暨佩娟、陈义兴:《浅析三维信用理论对促进慈善公信力的现实意义:以香港东华三院为例》,《经济研究导刊》2017年第16期,第189-191;孙智雯、陈伟明:《香港华商慈善组织的形成及其功能与空间扩展(1840—1940):以东华三院为例》,《安徽师范大学学报》(人文社科版)2017年第1期,第81-89页。

[30] 王惠玲:《香港公共卫生与东华中西医服务的演变》,载冼玉仪、刘润和主编《益善行道:东华三院135周年纪念专题文集》,三联书店(香港)有限公司,2006,第34~79页。另外,相关研究探讨了东华三院中医药服务的衰落与复兴,具体参阅何兆炜:《东华三院发展现代中医药服务的经验和冀盼》,《华夏医药》2008年第1期,第3-6页;Shu-Yun Ma,“The Making and Remaking of a Chinese Hospital in Hong Kong,” Modern Asian Studies ,Vol.45,No.5,2011,pp.1313-1336; 郑洪:《近代香港东华医院中医事业的变迁》,《中华医史杂志》2016年第3期,第165-171页;Yu Xiu-Ling,“Exclusion as Oppression:A Quest for Extra-legal Status for Chinese Medicine in Colonial Hong Kong,” in Michael H.K.Ng and John D.Wong (eds.), Civil Unrest and Governance in Hong Kong:Law and Order from Historical and Cultural Perspectives ,London and New York:Routledge,2017,pp.46-62.

[31] 相关资料可以参阅东华医院编《东华医院六十周年纪念记征文》,东雅公司,1931;Tung Wah Group of Hospitals, A Descriptive Sketch of the Work Carried on in the Tung Wah Hospital,Po Yan Street,the Tung WahEastern Hospital,Sookunpoo,the KwongWah Hospital,Kowloon ,Hong Kong:The Hospitals,1940;东华三院编《东华三院八十周年纪念特刊》,东华三院,1951;龙炳棠汇编《东华医院则例》,东华三院,1957;东华三院庚子年董事局编纂《香港东华三院发展史:创院九十周年纪念》,东华三院,1960;东华三院教育史略编纂委员会编《东华三院教育史略》,东华三院,1963;东华三院尝产建设计划编纂委员会编《东华三院尝产建设计划》,东华三院,1964;东华三院百年史略编纂委员会编《东华三院百年史略》,东华三院,1970;东华三院编《东华三院医务槪况》,东华三院,1972;东华三院编《东华三院学务槪况》,东华三院,1972;东华三院编《东华三院社会服务槪况》,东华三院,1972;东华三院辛酉年董事局汇编《今日东华》,东华三院,1982;Elizabeth Sinn, Materials for Historical Research:Source Materials on the Tung Wah Hospital 1870-1941, The Case of a Historical Institution ,Hong Kong:Centre of Asian Studies,University of Hong Kong,1982;东华三院编《东华三院董事局与中国官员交流纪念册》,东华三院,1984;李东海编撰《香港东华三院一百二十五年史略》,中国文史出版社,1998;东华三院社会服务科编印《东华三院社会服务总览》,东华三院社会服务科,1998和2001;东华三院编纂《东华三院一百三十年》,东华三院,2000;东华三院制作《东华故事》(录像资料),东华三院医务科,2003;胡成:《东华故事与香港历史的书写》,《读书》2003年第6期,第115-121页;东华三院医务科制作《东华三院中医服务》(录像资料),东华三院医务科,2006;香港中文大学、东华三院编辑:《东华三院档案资料汇编计划》,香港中文大学、东华三院,2006;广华医院95周年纪念特刊编辑委员会编《广华医院95周年纪念特刊》,广华医院,2007;东华三院编《回归十年心系百载:东华三院的祖国梦》,东华三院,2008;香港康乐及文化事务署与东华三院合办、香港历史博物馆与东华三院文物馆筹划《香江有情:东华三院与华人社会》,香港历史博物馆,2010;亚洲电视新闻部制作《广济华胞:广华医院》(DVD),广华医院,2011;广华医院编《广华百载情》,广华医院,2012;东华三院、香港中文大学编《慈善与医疗:东华三院的经验对华人社群的启示学术研讨会(香港中文大学;2013年12月20日)》,东华三院,2013;潘丽琼编著《东华情深系香港》,东华三院、快乐书房有限公司,2013。除此之外,还有大量关于介绍东华三院基本概况和各项服务的相关资料,这里不再罗列。

[32] Gerald H.Choa,“A History of Medicine in Hong Kong,” in Medical Directory of Hong Kong ,Hong Kong:The Federation of Medical Societies of Hong Kong,1970,pp.11-26;1981,pp.11-27;1985,pp.13-29;Gerald H.Choa, The Life and Times of Sir Kai Ho Kai:A Prominent Figure in Nineteenth - Century Hong Kong ,Hong Kong:Chinese University Press,1981 and 2000,pp.123-132;Gerald H.Choa,“Hong Kong's Health and Medical Services,” in Albert H.Yee (ed.), Whither Hong Kong:China ' s Shadow or Visionary Gleam ,Lanham:University Press of America,1999,pp.153-186;Robin Hutcheon, Bedside Manner:Hospital and Health Care in Hong Kong ,Hong Kong:Chinese University Press,1999,pp.1-25;吴国樑:《近四十年来香港医学发展史的研究概况》,《近代中国史研究通讯》2001年第31期,第73-91页;Robin Gauld and Derek Gould, The Hong Kong Health Sector:Development and Change ,Hong Kong:Chinese University Press,2002,pp.33-49;罗婉娴:《1842年至1937年间政府医疗政策与西医体制在香港的发展》(香港:香港浸会大学硕士论文,2003),第139-144页;Hong Kong Museum of Medical Sciences Society, Plague,SARS and the Story of Medicine in Hong Kong ,Hong Kong:Hong Kong University Press,2006,pp.91-100;Kerrie L.MacPherson,“Invisible Borders:Hong Kong,China and the Imperatives of Public Health,” in Milton J.Lewis and Kerrie L.MacPherson (eds.), Public Health in Asia and the Pacific:Historical and Comparative Perspectives ,London and New York:Routledge,2008,pp.10-54;Ka-che Yip,“Colonialism,Disease,and Public Health:Malaria in the History of Hong Kong,” in Ka-che Yip (ed.), Disease,Colonialism,and the State:Malaria in Modern East Asian History ,Hong Kong:Hong Kong University Press,2009,pp.11-30;Marjorie Topley, Cantonese Society in Hong Kong and Singapore:Gender,Religion,Medicine and Money ,Hong Kong:Hong Kong University Press,2011,pp.447-548 (Part V:Chinese and Western Medicine in Hong Kong);S.H.Lee,“Historical Perspectives in Public Health:Experiences from Hong Kong,” in Sian M.Griffiths,Jin Ling Tang,and Eng Kiong Yeoh (eds.), Routledge Handbook of Public Health in Asia:Perspectives on Global Health ,London and New York:Routledge,2014,pp.5-20;Moira M.W.Chan-Yeung, A Medical History of Hong Kong :1842-1941,Hong Kong:Chinese University Press,2018,pp.55-80 (Chapter 3:The Chinese Hospital:Its Rise,Decline,and Rebirth)。

[33] 有关东华三院档案的详细介绍,请参阅Elizabeth Sinn, Materials for Historical Research:Source Materials on the Tung Wah Hospital 1870-1941, The Case of a Historical Institution ,Hong Kong:Centre of Asian Studies,University of Hong Kong,1982.

[34] Report of the Commission appointed by His Excellency the Governor to enquire into the Working and Organization of the Tung Wa Hospital together with the Evidence taken before the Commission and other Appendices ,Hong Kong,1896.其他涉及东华的重要政府报告还包括: Report of a Committee of Inquiry into the Medical Department of the Colony and other Relative Matters ,Hong Kong,1895;A.R.Wellington, Memorandum on Changes in the Public Health Organizations of Hong Kong during the Period 1929-1937,Hong Kong,1937; Report of the Technical Committee for the Reorganization and Improvement of Existing Official Hospital and Clinical Facilities appointed by the Governor ,1938-1939,Hong Kong,1939.

[35] 有关近代香港报业的发展情况请参阅Frank H.H.King, A Research Guide to China - Coast Newspapers ,1822-1911,Cambridge:East Asian Research Center,Harvard University,1965;Kan Lai-bing and Grace H L.Chu, Newspapers of Hong Kong :1841-1979,Hong Kong:University Library System,Chinese University of Hong Kong,1981;广东省政协文史资料硏究委员会编《香港报业春秋》,广东人民出版社,1991;陈昌凤:《香港报业纵横》,法律出版社,1997;李谷城:《香港报业百年沧桑》,明报出版社,2000;香港中央图书馆编辑《香港报刊及文献缩微资料介绍》,香港公共图书馆,2004;李谷城:《香港中文报业发展史》,上海古籍出版社,2005;陈鸣:《香港报业史稿(1841-1911》,华光报业有限公司,2005。

[36] 东华三院出版的系列刊物当中也有部分内容涉及东华发展历史的资料,这些刊物包括1947~1950年出版的《东华月刊》( Tung Wah Monthly )、1968~1973年和1982年出版的《今日东华》( Tung Wah Today )以及从1981年开始至今仍然出版的《东华通讯》( Tung Wah News )。

[1] Elizabeth Sinn, Power and Charity:The Early History of the Tung Wah Hospital,Hong Kong ,Hong Kong:Oxford University Press,1989,p.184.

[2] 所谓殖民医学,简而言之,即殖民政府在殖民地社会推行的西方医学(公共卫生)服务与相关政策。在相关研究中,殖民医学通常等同于在殖民地推行的西方医学。相关内容可以参阅Michael Worboys,“British Colonial Medicine and Tropical Imperialism:A Comparative Perspective,” in G.M.van Heteren,A.de Knecht-van Eekelen and M.J.D.Poulissen (eds.), Dutch Medicine in the Malay Archipelago ,1816-1942,Amsterdam:Rodopi,1989,pp.153-167;David Arnold,“Medicine and Colonialism,” in W.F.Bynum and Roy Porter (eds.), Companion Encyclopedia of the History of Medicine ,London and New York:Routledge,1993,pp.1393-1416;Shula Marks,“What is Colonial about Colonial Medicine? And What has Happened to Imperialism and Health?” Social History of Medicine ,Vol.10,No.2,1997,pp.205-219;Michael Worboys,“Colonial Medicine,” in Roger Cooter and John V.Pickstone (eds.), Companion to Medicine in the Twentieth Century ,London and New York:Routledge,2003,pp.67-80;Mark Harrison,“Medicine and Colonialism in South Asia since 1500,” in Mark Jackson (ed.), The Oxford Handbook of the History of Medicine ,Oxford:Oxford University Press,2011,pp.285-301;Jeremy Greene,Marguerite Thorp Basilico,Heidi Kim,and Paul Farmer,“Colonial Medicine and Its Legacies,” in Paul Farmer,Jim Yong Kim,Arthur Kleinman,and Matthew Basilico (eds.), Reimagining Global Health:An Introduction ,Berkeley:University of California Press,2013,pp.33-76; Jennifer Johnson,“New Directions in the History of Medicine in European,Colonial and Transimperial Contexts,” Contemporary European History ,Vol.25,No.2,2016,pp.387-399; Rahul Bhaumik,“The History of Colonial Science and Medicine in British India:Centre-Periphery Perspective,” Indian Journal of History of Science ,Vol.52,No.2,2017,pp.174-183.

[3] David Arnold,“Medicine and Colonialism,” in W.F.Bynum and Roy Porter (eds.), Companion Encyclopedia of the History of Medicine ,London and New York:Routledge,1993,p.1393.

[4] Franz Fanon, A Dying Colonialism ,New York:Grove Press,1967,pp.134,137.有关法农与殖民医学史的研究,请参阅Richard C.Keller,“Clinician and Revolutionary:Frantz Fanon,Biography,and the History of Colonial Medicine,” Bulletin of the History of Medicine ,Vol.81,No.4,2007,pp.823-841.

[5] Daniel R.Headrick, The Tools of Empire:Technology and European Imperialism in the Nineteenth Century ,Oxford:Oxford University Press,1981.其实,赫德里克早在1979年的文章中就提出这种观点,具体内容参阅Daniel R.Headrick,“The Tools of Imperialism:Technology and the Expansion of European Colonial Empires in the Nineteenth Century,” Journal of Modern History ,Vol.51,No.2,1979,pp.231-263。此外,在赫德里克之前,也有一些学者开始提出这种观点,具体内容参阅Ann Beck, A History of the British Medical Administration of East Africa ,1900-1950,Cambridge:Harvard University Press,1970;E.E.Sabben-Clare,David J.Bradley and Kenneth Kirkwood (eds.), Health in Tropical Africa during the Colonial Period ,Oxford:Oxford University Press,1980.

[6] 代表性研究成果可以参阅Karl David Patterson, Health in Colonial Ghana:Disease,Medicine,and Socio - Economic Change ,1900-1955,Waltham:Crossroads Press,1981;Roy MacLeod and Milton Lewis (eds.), Disease,Medicine and Empire:Perspectives on Western Medicine and the Experience of European Expansion ,London and New York:Routledge,1988;David Arnold (ed.), Imperial Medicine and Indigenous Society ,Manchester:Manchester University Press,1988;Anne Marcovich, French Colonial Medicine and Colonial Rule:Algeria and Indochina ,London and New York:Routledge,1988;Philip D.Curtin, Death by Migration:Europe ' s Encounter with the Tropical World in the Nineteenth Century ,Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,1989;Poonam Bala, Imperialism and Medicine in Bengal:A Socio - Historical Perspective ,New Delhi:Sage Publications,1991;Maryinez Lyons, A Colonial Disease:A Social History of Sleeping Sickness in Northern Zaire ,1900-1940,Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,1991;Megan Vaughan, Curing Their Ills:Colonial Power and African Illness ,Cambridge:Polity Press,1991;Steven Feierman and John M.Janzen (eds.), The Social Basis of Health and Healing in Africa ,Berkeley:University of California Press,1992;David Arnold, Colonizing the Body:State Medicine and Epidemic Disease in Nineteenth - Century India ,Berkeley:University of California Press,1993;Mark Harrison, Public Health in British India:Anglo - Indian Preventive Medicine 1859-1914,Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,1994;Soma Hewa, Colonialism,Tropical Disease and Imperial Medicine:Rockefeller Philanthropy in Sri Lanka ,Lanham:University Press of America,1995;Lenore Manderson, Sickness and the State:Health and Illness in Colonial Malaya ,1870-1940,Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,1996;Adell Patton,Jr., Physicians,Colonial Racism,and Diaspora in West Africa ,Gainesville:University Press of Florida,1996;David Arnold (ed.), Warm Climates and Western Medicine:The Emergence of Tropical Medicine ,1500-1900,Amsterdam:Rodopi,1996;Andrew Cunningham and Bridie Andrews (eds.), Western Medicine As Contested Knowledge ,Manchester:Manchester University Press,1997;Sheldon J.Watts, Epidemics and History:Disease,Power and Imperialism ,New Haven:Yale University Press,1997;Anil Kumar, Medicine and the Raj:British Medical Policy in India ,1835-1911,Walnut Creek:AltaMira Press,1998;John Iliffe, East African Doctors:A History of the Modern Profession ,Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,1998;Philip D.Curtin, Disease and Empire:The Health of European Troops in the Conquest of Africa ,Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,1998;Alan Bewell, Romanticism and Colonial Disease ,Baltimore:Johns Hopkins University Press,1999;Jonathan Hal Sadowsky, Imperial Bedlam:Institutions of Madness in Colonial Southwest Nigeria ,Berkeley:University of California Press,1999;Antoinette Burton (ed.), Gender,Sexuality and Colonial Modernities ,London and New York:Routledge,1999;Mark Harrison, Climates and Constitutions:Health,Race,Environment and British Imperialism in India ,1600-1850,Oxford:Oxford University Press,1999;Waltraud Ernst and Bernard Harris (eds.), Race,Science and Medicine ,1700-1960,London and New York:Routledge,1999;Heather Bell, Frontiers of Medicine in the Anglo - Egyptian Sudan ,1899-1940,Oxford:Clarendon Press,1999;Roger Cooter and John Pickstone (eds.), Medicine in the Twentieth Century ,Amsterdam:Harwood Academic Publishers,2000;David Arnold, Science,Technology and Medicine in Colonial India ,Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,2000;Julyan G.Peard, Race,Place,and Medicine:The Idea of the Tropics in Nineteenth - Century Brazil ,Durham:Duke University Press,2000;Luise White, Speaking with Vampires:Rumor and History in Colonial Africa ,Berkeley:University of California Press,2000;Shi-yung Liu,“Medical Reform in Colonial Taiwan,” (Ph.D.dissertation,Pittsburgh:University of Pittsburgh,2000);Biswamoy Pati and Mark Harrison (eds.), Health,Medicine,and Empire:Perspectives on Colonial India ,Hyderabad:Orient Longman,2001;Douglas M.Haynes, Imperial Medicine:Patrick Manson and the Conquest of Tropical Disease ,Philadelphia:University of Pennsylvania Press,2001;George O.Ndege, Health,State,and Society in Kenya ,Rochester:University of Rochester Press,2001;Jane Buckingham, Leprosy in Colonial South India:Medicine and Confinement ,New York:Palgrave Macmillan,2002;Myron J.Echenberg, Black Death,White Medicine:Bubonic Plague and the Politics of Public Health in Colonial Senegal ,1914-1945,Portsmouth:Heinemann,2002;Ming-Cheng M.Lo, Doctors within Borders:Profession,Ethnicity,and Modernity in Colonial Taiwan ,Berkeley:University of California Press,2002;Osaak A.Olumwullah, Dis - ease in the Colonial State:Medicine,Society,and Social Change among the AbaNyole of Western Kenya ,Westport:Greenwood Press,2002;Mridula Ramanna, Western Medicine and Public Health in Colonial Bombay ,1845-1895,Delhi:Orient Longman,2002;Philippa Levine, Prostitution,Race and Politics:Policing Venereal Disease in the British Empire ,London and New York:Routledge,2003;Mary P.Sutphen and Bridie Andrews (eds.), Medicine and Colonial Identity ,London and New York:Routledge,2003;Alison Bashford, Imperial Hygiene:A Critical History of Colonialism,Nationalism and Public Health ,Basingstoke:Palgrave Macmillan,2003;John Farley, Bilharzia:A History of Imperial Tropical Medicine ,Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,2003;Helaine Selin (ed.), Medicine Across Cultures:History and Practice of Medicine in Non - Western Cultures ,Boston:Kluwer Academic Publishers,2003;Deborah Brunton (ed.), Medicine Transformed:Health,Disease and Society in Europe 1800-1930,Manchester:Manchester University Press,2004;Mark Harrison, Disease and the Modern World :1500 to the Present Day ,Cambridge:Polity Press,2004;Margaret Jones, Health Policy in Britain ' s Model Colony:Ceylon ,1900-1948,Hyderabad:Orient Longman,2004;Sanjoy Bhattacharya,Mark Harrison,and Michael Worboys, Fractured States:Smallpox,Public Health and Vaccination Policy in British India 1800-1947,Hyderabad:Orient Blackswan,2005;范燕秋:《疾病、医学与殖民现代性:日治台湾医学史》,稻乡出版社,2005;Warwick Anderson, Colonial Pathologies:American Tropical Medicine,Race,and Hygiene in the Philippines ,Durham:Duke University Press,2006;Kavita Sivaramakrishnan, Old Potions,New Bottles:Recasting Indigenous Medicine in Colonial Punjab (1850-1945),New Delhi:Orient Longman,2006;Rod Edmond, Leprosy and Empire:A Medical and Cultural History ,Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,2006;Anna Crozier, Practising Colonial Medicine:The Colonial Medical Service in British East Africa ,London and New York:I.B.Tauris,2007;Sandra M.Sufian, Healing the Land and the Nation:Malaria and the Zionist Project in Palestine ,1920-1947,Chicago:University of Chicago Press,2007;Yaron Perry and Efraim Lev, Modern Medicine in the Holy Land:Pioneering British Medical Services in Late Ottoman Palestine ,London and New York:Tauris Academic Studies,2007;Poonam Bala, Medicine and Medical Policies in India:Social and Historical Perspectives ,Lanham:Lexington Books,2007;Richard C.Keller, Colonial Madness:Psychiatry in French North Africa ,Chicago:University of Chicago Press,2008;李尚仁主编《帝国与现代医学》,联经出版事业股份有限公司,2008;Biswamoy Pati and Mark Harrison (eds.), The Social History of Health and Medicine in Colonial India ,London and New York:Routledge,2009;Ka-che Yip (ed.), Disease,Colonialism,and the State:Malaria in Modern East Asian History ,Hong Kong:Hong Kong University Press,2009;ProjitBihari Mukharji, Nationalizing the Body:The Medical Market,Print,and Daktari Medicine ,London and New York:Anthem Press,2009;Hormoz Ebrahimnejad (ed.), The Development of Modern Medicine in Non - Western Countries:Historical Perspectives ,London and New York:Routledge,2009;Poonam Bala (ed.), Biomedicine as a Contested Site:Some Revelations in Imperial Contexts ,Lanham:Lexington Books,2009;Angela Ki Che Leung and Charlotte Furth (eds.), Health and Hygiene in Chinese East Asia:Policies and Publics in the Long Twentieth Century ,Durham:Duke University Press,2010;Waltraud Ernst, Mad Tales From the Raj:Colonial Psychiatry in South Asia ,1800-58,London and New York:Anthem Press,2010;Mark Harrison, Medicine in An Age of Commerce and Empire:Britain and Its Tropical Colonies ,1660-1830,Oxford:Oxford University Press,2010;Daniel R.Headrick, Power over Peoples:Technology,Environments,and Western Imperialism ,1400 to the Present ,Princeton:Princeton University Press,2010;Hibba Abugideiri, Gender and the Making of Modern Medicine in Colonial Egypt ,Burlington:Ashgate,2010;Sokhieng Au, Mixed Medicines:Health and Culture in French Colonial Cambodia ,Chicago:University of Chicago Press,2011;Narin Hassan, Diagnosing Empire:Women,Medical Knowledge,and Colonial Mobility ,Burlington:Ashgate,2011;Christina Folke Ax,Niels Brimnes,and Niklas Thode Jensen (eds.), Cultivating the Colonies:Colonial States and their Environmental Legacies ,Athens:Ohio University Press,2011;David S.Simmons, Modernizing Medicine in Zimbabwe:HIV / AIDS and Traditional Healers ,Nashville:Vanderbilt University Press,2012;Kalala Ngalamulume, Colonial Pathologies,Environment,and Western Medicine in Saint - Louis - du - Senegal ,1867-1920,New York:Peter Lang,2012;Deborah J.Neill, Networks in Tropical Medicine:Internationalism,Colonialism,and the Rise of a Medical Specialty ,1890-1930,Stanford:Stanford University Press,2012;Nandini Bhattacharya, Contagion and Enclaves:Tropical Medicine in Colonial India ,Liverpool:Liverpool University Press,2012;Poonam Bala (ed.), Contesting Colonial Authority:Medicine and Indigenous Responses in Nineteenth - and Twentieth - Century India ,Lanham:Lexington Books,2012;Madhuri Sharma, Indigenous and Western Medicine in Colonial India ,Delhi:Foundation Books,2012;Ryan Johnson and Amna Khalid (eds.), Public Health in the British Empire:Intermediaries,Subordinates,and the Practice of Public Health ,1850-1960,London and New York:Routledge,2012;Robert Peckham and David M.Pomfret (eds.), Imperial Contagions:Medicine,Hygiene,and Cultures of Planning in Asia ,Hong Kong:Hong Kong University Press,2013;Rachel Berger, Ayurveda Made Modern:Political Histories of Indigenous Medicine in North India ,1900-1955,Basingstoke:Palgrave Macmillan,2013;Ellen J.Amster, Medicine and the Saints:Science,Islam,and the Colonial Encounter in Morocco ,1877-1956,Austin:University of Texas Press,2013;Samiksha Sehrawat, Colonial Medical Care in North India:Gender,State and Society,c .1840-1920,Delhi:Oxford University Press,2013;祝平一编《健康与社会:华人卫生新史》,联经出版事业股份有限公司,2013;Michael A.Osborne, The Emergence of Tropical Medicine in France ,Chicago:University of Chicago Press,2014;Poonam Bala (ed.), Medicine and Colonialism:Historical Perspectives in India and South Africa ,London:Pickering and Chatto,2014;Pratik Chakrabarti, Medicine and Empire ,1600-1960,Basingstoke:Palgrave Macmillan,2014;Erica Wald, Vice in the Barracks:Medicine,the Military and the Making of Colonial India ,1780-1868,Basingstoke:Palgrave Macmillan,2014;John Rankin, Healing the African Body:British Medicine in West Africa ,1800-1860,Columbia:University of Missouri Press,2015;Robert Peckham (ed.), Empires of Panic:Epidemics and Colonial Anxieties ,Hong Kong:Hong Kong University Press,2015;Srirupa Prasad, Cultural Politics of Hygiene in India ,1890–1940: Contagions of Feeling ,New York:Palgrave Macmillan,2015;Anna Greenwood (ed.), Beyond the State:The Colonial Medical Service in British Africa ,Manchester:Manchester University Press,2016;Randall M.Packard, A History of Global Health:Interventions into the Lives of Other Peoples ,Baltimore:Johns Hopkins University Press,2016;Thuy Linh Nguyen, Childbirth,Maternity,and Medical Pluralism in French Colonial Vietnam ,1880-1945,Rochester:University of Rochester Press,2016;Srilata Chatterjee, Western Medicine and Colonial Society:Hospitals of Calcutta,c .1757-1860,Delhi:Primus Books,2017;Hairudin Harun, Medicine and Imperialism:A History of British Colonial Medicine in the Malay Peninsula ,London:Aaron Quill,2017;Richard C.Parks, Medical Imperialism in French North Africa:Regenerating the Jewish Community of Colonial Tunis ,Lincoln:University of Nebraska Press,2017;刘士永、王文基主编《东亚医疗史:殖民、性别与现代性》,联经出版事业股份有限公司,2017;Biswamoy Pati and Mark Harrison (eds.), Society,Medicine and Politics in Colonial India ,London and New York:Routledge,2018;Poonam Bala (ed.), Medicine and Colonial Engagements in India and Sub - Saharan Africa ,Cambridge:Cambridge Scholars Publishing,2018.限于篇幅,有关殖民医学研究的单篇或专书论文,这里将不再罗列。

[7] 关于殖民地性病医院的研究,一般都认为殖民政府通过性病医院来控制感染性病的妇女以保证社会的安全与秩序,但是萨拉·霍其斯(Sarah Hodges)的研究显示,这些性病医院的病人并不是消极地被控制,她们积极地将性病医院纳入自己的生存策略之中,并且将这些机构转变为特殊时期的避难所,明显是一种利己主义的应对举措。详细内容请参阅Sarah Hodges,“‘Looting’ the Lock Hospital in Colonial Madras during the Famine Years of the 1870s,” Social History of Medicine ,Vol.18,No.3,2005,pp.379-398.

[8] 在一项有关医院如何促进西方医学在发展中世界传播的研究中,牛津大学卫康医学史研究中心(Wellcome Trust History of Medicine Unit,Oxford University)主任马克·哈里森(Mark Harrison)表达了此种观点。详细内容访问https://web.archive.org/web/20070518043623/http://www.wellcome.ac.uk/doc_WTD004732.html(2018年8月25日访问)。此外,有关非西方世界医院发展的研究请参阅Mark Harrison,Margaret Jones and Helen M.Sweet (eds.), From Western Medicine to Global Medicine:The Hospital Beyond the West ,Hyderabad:Orient Blackswan,2009.

[9] Philippa Levine, Prostitution,Race,and Politics:Policing Venereal Disease in the British Empire ,London and New York:Routledge,2003,p.70.

[10] Elizabeth Sinn, Power and Charity:The Early History of the Tung Wah Hospital,Hong Kong ,Hong Kong:Oxford University Press,1989,pp.52-53.

[11] Elizabeth Sinn, Power and Charity:The Early History of the Tung Wah Hospital,Hong Kong ,Hong Kong:Oxford University Press,1989,p.60.

[12] Elizabeth Sinn, Power and Charity:The Early History of the Tung Wah Hospital,Hong Kong ,Hong Kong:Oxford University Press,1989,pp.79-80;David Faure, Emperor and Ancestor:State and Lineage in South China ,Stanford:Stanford University Press,2007,pp.334-336.相关资料还可以参阅澳门镜湖医院慈善会编《镜湖医院九十周季纪念特刊》,澳门镜湖医院慈善会,1961;澳门镜湖医院慈善会编《镜湖医院一百十五周年纪念特刊》,澳门镜湖医院慈善会,1986;澳门镜湖医院慈善会编《镜湖医院慈善会创办一百三十周年纪念特刊》,澳门镜湖医院慈善会,2001;柯征、姚丰编辑《澳门镜湖医院慈善会会史》,澳门镜湖医院慈善会,2001;澳门镜湖医院慈善会编《孙中山先生诞辰140周年:镜湖医院慈善会创办135周年纪念特刊》,澳门镜湖医院慈善会,2006;唐富满:《广州方便医院与近代广州社会》,《中山大学学报论丛》2007年第10期,第223-227页;新加坡同济医院百年特刊出版委员会编《新加坡同济医院一百周年纪念特刊》,同济医院百年特刊出版委员会,1967;新加坡同济医院编《同济医院一百二十周年历史专集》,同济医院,1989;新加坡同济医院编《新加坡同济医院135周年纪念特刊:1867—2002》,同济医院,2002;新加坡同济医院编《同济医院一百四十五周年暨同济医药研究院十周年纪念特刊:百年善业融入社区》,同济医院,2002;T.J.Gintjee and Howard H.Johnson,“San Francisco's First Chinese Hospital,” The Modern Hospital ,October 1925,pp.283-285;Yuk Ow,Him Mark Lai and P.Choy (eds.), A History of the Sam Yup Benevolent Association in the United States ,1850-1974,San Francisco:Sam Yup Benevolent Association,1975,pp.132-135;George Kao, Cathay by the Bay:Glimpses of San Francisco ' s Chinatown in the Year 1950,Hong Kong:Chinese University Press,1988,pp.91-98;Him Mark Lai, Becoming Chinese American:A History of Communities and Institutions ,Walnut Creek:AltaMira Press,2004,pp.119-122;Shirley Fong-Torres, The Woman Who Ate Chinatown:A San Francisco Odyssey ,New York:iUniverse,Inc.,2008,p.39;Guenter B.Risse,“Translating Western Modernity:The First Chinese Hospital in America,” Bulletin of the History of Medicine ,Vol.85,No.3,2011,pp.413-447;Mae Ngai, The Lucky Ones:One Family and the Extraordinary Invention of Chinese America ,Princeton:Princeton University Press,2012,p.155;Guenter B.Risse, Plague,Fear,and Politics in San Francisco ' s Chinatown ,Baltimore:Johns Hopkins University Press,2012,pp.53-56;Laureen D.Hom,“Early Chinese Immigrants Organizing for Healthcare:The Establishment of the Chinese Hospital in San Francisco,” in Grace J.Yoo,Mai-Nhung Le,and Alan Y.Oda (eds.), Handbook of Asian American Health ,New York:Springer Science and Business Media,2013,pp.353-362;George William Skinner, Chinese Society in Thailand:An Analytical History ,Ithaca:Cornell University Press,1957,pp.170,257-258(该书中文版为施坚雅:《泰国华人社会:历史的分析》,许华等译,厦门大学出版社,2010)。

[13] 米歇尔·福柯、保罗·雷比诺:《空间、知识、权力:福柯访谈录》,载包亚明主编《后现代性与地理学的政治》,上海教育出版社,2001,第13-14页。相关研究还可以参阅Colin Jones and Roy Porter (eds.), Reassessing Foucault:Power,Medicine and the Body ,London and New York:1994;Jeremy W.Crampton and Stuart Elden (eds.), Space,Knowledge and Power:Foucault and Geography ,Burlington:Ashgate,2007.

[14] 有关殖民权力对殖民地城市空间格局与人造环境(built environment)影响的研究可以参阅Anthony D.King, Colonial Urban Development:Culture,Social Power and Environment ,London and New York:Routledge,1976;John Noyes, Colonial Space:Spatiality in the Discourse of German South West Africa ,1884-1915,Chur:Harwood Academic Publishers,1992;Brenda S.A.Yeoh, Contesting Space:Power Relations and the Urban Built Environment in Colonial Singapore ,Oxford:Oxford University Press,1996 (该书第二版为Brenda S.A.Yeoh, Contesting Space in Colonial Singapore:Power Relations and the Urban Built Environment ,Singapore:Singapore University Press,2003);Garth Andrew Myers, Verandahs of Power:Colonialism and Space in Urban Africa ,Syracuse:Syracuse University Press,2003;Manu Goswami, Producing India:From Colonial Economy to National Space ,Chicago:Chicago University Press,2004;Steven J.Salm and Toyin Falola (eds.), African Urban Spaces in Historical Perspective ,Rochester:University Rochester Press,2005;Brenda S.A.Yeoh,“Municipal Sanitary Ideology and the Control of the Urban Environment in Colonial Singapore,” in Alan R.H.Baker and Gideon Biger (eds.), Ideology and Landscape in Historical Perspective:Essays on the Meanings of Some Places in the Past ,Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,2006,pp.148-172;Stephen Legg, Spaces of Colonialism:Delhi ' s Urban Governmentalities ,Malden:Blackwell Publishing,2007;Ambe Njoh, Planning Power:Town Planning and Social Control in Colonial Africa ,London:UCL Press,2007;Prashant Kidambi, The Making of an Indian Metropolis:Colonial Governance and Public Culture in Bombay ,1890-1920,Burlington:Ashgate,2007;Stephen Legg, Spaces of Colonialism:Delhi ' s Urban Governmentalities ,Malden:Blackwell Publishing,2007;Alfred W.McCoy and Francisco A.Scarano (eds.), Colonial Crucible:Empire in the Making of the Modern American State ,Madison:University of Wisconsin Press,2009;William Cunningham Bissell, Urban Design,Chaos,and Colonial Power in Zanzibar ,Bloomington:Indiana University Press,2011;Laura Victoir and Victor Zatsepine (eds.), Harbin to Hanoi:The Colonial Built Environment in Asia ,1840 to 1940,Hong Kong:Hong Kong University Press,2013;Carlos Nunes Silva (ed.), Urban Planning in Sub - Saharan Africa:Colonial and Post - Colonial Planning Cultures ,London and New York:Routledge,2015;Ambe J.Njoh, Urban Planning and Public Health in Africa:Historical,Theoretical and Practical Dimensions of a Continent ' s Water and Sanitation Problematic ,London and New York:Routledge,2016;Nicole Gombay and Marcela Palomino-Schalscha (eds.), Indigenous Places and Colonial Spaces:The Politics of Intertwined Relations ,London and New York:Routledge,2018. +j4AqRoXuVDHJmQTUEgK3YRs9Fy9cHzc5r1SK4v/wiA7z8XRkZq9v0ITx73PEO6U

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