人体类
Human Body

古人关于人体形象的字造了很多，有正面站立的（大），有侧面站立的（人），有躺着的（尸），有跪着的（卩），有女人形（女），有老人形（长），有小孩形（儿）等。古文字的人字，是一个侧面而立的人形，它的本义即指人类，是所有人的总称。而凡以“人”字为形符的字，大都与人类及其行为状态有关，如从、众、伐、休、伏、保、介等。

There are many characters based on the shape of a human body, e.g．大 representing the frontal view of a man on his feet，人 the side view of a man on his feet，尸a man lying down,卩 a man on his knees，女 a woman，长 an old man, and儿a child. The character人in ancient writing systems presents the side view of a man on his feet. It is a general term, referring to all mankind. Characters with人as a component are all related to the human race and their behaviour, e.g．从(to follow)，众(many)，伐(to attack)，休(to rest)，伏(to lie prostrate)，保(to protect), and介(to interpose).

元字的本义就是人头。早期金文中的元字，像一个侧面而立的人形，而特别突出了人的头部。这个头部的形状在甲骨文和后来的金文中简化成一横，而在横上又另加一点，以指示在人体中的位置。元字由人的头部义又可引申为指事情的开头，有开始、第一的意思，所以从前帝王改换年号的第一年就叫做元年，一年中的第一个月叫元月，一年的第一天叫元旦。把事情的开端叫“元始”，所以元字又有本来、原先之义。

The original meaning of 元 was“the head of a man”. In the early Bronze Inscriptions，元 looks like the side view of a man on his feet, with the head especially prominent. In the Oracle- Bone Inscriptions and late Bronze Inscriptions, the part signalling the head is simply a horizontal stroke, on top of which a dot is added to indicate the position of the head in a human body. From“the head of a man”have derived its extended meanings of“the beginning”and“the first”. That is why when an emperor changes his reign title, the first year is called 元年．And the first month in a year is 元月，the first day is 元旦．The beginning of an event is 元始．In addition，元 could mean“original”, though the more usual character for it now is原．

古文字的比字，像一前一后紧靠在一起的两个人形。它的本义为并列、靠近、紧挨；引申指比较、较量；又指勾结，用作贬义，如“朋比为奸”（互相勾结干坏事）。

In ancient writing systems, the character 比 looks like two men standing together, one in front of the other. Its primary meaning, therefore, is“to stand side by side”, “to get close to”, from which have derived its extended meanings“to compare”and“to compete”. And it can also mean“to gang up with”, e.g．朋比为奸 (to associate with for treasonable purposes).

古文字的从字，是一前一后两个人形，像一个人在前面走，另一个人随后跟从的样子，其本义为跟随、随从。从字由跟从之义，引申为指听从、顺从之义，又有参与其事的意思，如从军、从政、从事等。

In ancient writing systems, the character 从 looks like two men walking together, one in front of the other. Its primary meaning is“to follow”, from which have derived the meanings“to heed”and“to obey”. It can also mean“to be engaged in”, e. g．从军(to join the army)，从政(to go into politics) and 从事(to go in for).

古文字的北字，像两个人相背而立的样子，其本义为相背、违背。军队打了败仗，士兵相背四散而逃，所以北字又有败、败逃之义。此外，北又多借用为方位名词，指北方，与南方相对。

In ancient writing systems, the character 北 looks like two men standing back to back, hence its original meaning“to be contrary to”. When an army suffered a defeat, the soldiers all ran for their lives with their backs toward each other, so the character北 has come to mean“to be defeated”as well. In addition，北is also used as a locative, meaning“the north”, opposite to 南 (the south).

甲骨文、金文的并字，像两人被连在一起的形状。它的本义为合并，即联合在一起的意思。并字还可用作副词，相当于“皆”“都”的意思，又指一起、一齐。

In the Oracle-Bone Inscriptions and Bronze Inscriptions, the character并looks like two men linked together. Its primary meaning is“to combine”. But it may also be used as an adverb, meaning“all”, “altogether”or“simultaneously”.

甲骨文众字，像烈日当空，很多人弯腰在地上劳动的样子，真有点“锄禾日当午”的意味。金文和小篆的众字，上面的日变成了目，似乎像奴隶主的一双牛似的大眼在监视一群奴隶劳动。因此，众的本义当指成群的奴隶，引申为指众人、大家、许多人，同时又泛指人或事物之多。

In the Oracle-Bone Inscriptions, the character 众 looks like a picture in which many people are tilling the soil in the scorching sun. In the Bronze Inscriptions and Later Seal Character, the sun part on top changes into an eye part, as if the labourers were slaves working under the close surveillance of a slave owner. So the original meaning of 众 was“masses of slaves”, but it has evolved to mean a crowd of people, or simply, a large number(of people or of things).

尺是一种长度单位。十寸为一尺，三尺为一米，十尺为一丈。在古代，各种长度单位多以人体的部位为准则，如寸、尺、咫（zhǐ）等。金文的尺字，是在一个人形的小腿部位加一个指事符号以表示一尺的高度所在。小篆尺字的结构方法相同，只是形体稍有变化罢了。尺的本义是指一种长度单位，引申指一种量长度或画线用的器具——尺子。

尺is a measure of length, equal to ten 寸 or one tenth of 丈 in the Chinese System, and one third of a metre in the Metric System. In ancient times, these measures of length were based on the length of parts of a human body. In the Bronze Inscriptions, the character 尺 looks like a man with a sign on the shank, marking the length of 尺．In the Later Seal Character, the character has the same structure except some minor change in the shape. From its primary meaning has also derived the use of尺to refer to an instrument for measuring length—尺子(ruler).

坐，是指人臀部着地以支持体重的一种方式。《说文解字》中所录古文（战国文字）的坐字，从二人从土，像二人面对面坐在地上之形。坐的本义为跪坐，引申为搭、乘之义。

坐 means“to sit”, especially“to sit on the ground”. The character坐 in the Ancient Script, as is recorded in the Origin of Chinese Characters , consists of two man parts and a ground part, signalling two men sitting face to face on the ground. The meaning“to travel by (a vehicle)”is one of its extended meanings.

甲骨文、金文的吊字，像人身上缠带矰（zēng，一种带有长绳的短箭）缴之形。其本义不明。此字在金文中常用为叔伯之叔，典籍中则用为哀悼、慰问、抚恤之义，现在多用来作为悬挂的意思。

In the Oracle-Bone Inscriptions and Bronze Inscriptions, the character 吊looks like a man around whom winds a long rope with a short arrow at its head. Its original meaning is unclear. In the Bronze Inscriprions，吊was often used to refer to one's father's younger brother. In some ancient records, it was used in the sense“to express one's condolences, sympathies”. Nowadays, however, it usually means“to hang (something)”.

重是个会意字，早期金文的重，从人从东，像一个人背上扛着一个大包袱，非常吃力的样子，表示所背的东西很沉重。稍后的金文重字，“人”与“东”两形合并为一体，已看不出背物之意。小篆重字从 （tǐng）从东，也是由金文演变而来的。总之，重的本义指重量，与“轻”相对；引申为厚重、严重、庄重等义。此外，重又可读为chóng，有重叠、重复的意思。

重 is an ideograph. In the early Bronze Inscriptions, the character 重consists of 人 and 东，like a man carrying a sack on his back strenuously, signalling that the sack is heavy. In the late Bronze Inscriptions, the two components 人 and 东 are combined, with no sign of a man carrying things on his back any more. The character 重 in the Later Seal Character, derivative from the Bronze Inscriptions, consists of (tǐng) and东．In short, its primary meaning is“heavy”, as against 轻 (light). Its extended meanings include“honest and kind”, “serious”and“solemn”.重can also be pronounced as chóng, meaning“to overlap”and“to repeat”.

臽为“陷”的本字。古文字的臽字，从人在臼中，臼像土坑、陷阱之形，表示人掉落土坑中的意思。所以，臽的本义为陷落、掉入，又指陷阱、土坑。

臽 was the original form of陷．In the Later Seal Character, the character臽looks like a man in a hole, signified by 臼．Its primary meaning is“to fall (into a hole)”, but it can also be used as a noun, meaning“a hole”, “a pitfall”.

队为“坠（zhuì）”的本字。甲骨文队字从阜从倒人（或倒子），像人从高高的山崖掉落下来的样子。金文队字的人形换成了“豕”，所以到小篆时队字变成了从阜 声的形声字。队的本义为坠落，即由高处往下掉的意思。此字后来多借用为队列、队伍之义，故另造“坠（墜）”字来代替它的本义。

队 was the original form of 坠(zhuì). In the Oracle-Bone Inscriptions, the character 队 consists of a mound part and an upsidedown man part, signalling a man falling off a cliff. In the Bronze Inscriptions, the upside- down man part is changed into a pig part(豕). As a result, in the Later Seal Character, it becomes a phonetic compound with阜as the radical and as the phonetic. Its original meaning was“to fall down”. This meaning, however, is now expressed by a later development 坠(墜), as 队 is usually used in the sense of“a file of people”, “a contingent”.

何字本是一个会意字。甲骨文、金文的何字，像一个人肩上扛着一把戈在行走的样子；小篆讹变为从人可声，成为形声字。何的本义为负荷（hè），即扛、背的意思。此字后来多借用为疑问代词（什么、谁、哪里）和副词（多么），它的本义则由“荷”字所取代。

The character 何 was originally an ideograph. In the Oracle-Bone Inscriptions and Bronze Inscriptions, the character何looks like a man marching with a dagger-axe on his shoulder. In the Later Seal Character it becomes a phonetic compound with 人as the radical and可 as the phonetic pronounced as. The original meaning of 何 was“to carry”. But this meaning is now expressed by 荷（hè）, as 何has come to be used as an interrogative pronoun or adverb, meaning“what”,“who”, “where”, or“how”.

永是“泳”的本字。古文字的永，像一个人在水中游泳的样子，本义为游泳。此字后来多用来指水流长远，又引申为长久、长远之义，故另造“泳”字来表示它的本义。

永was the original form of泳．In ancient writing systems, the character永looks like a man moving in the water, i.e. swimming. Later, this character came to be used in the sense of“a long river”, and acquired the meaning of“long”. Its original meaning is now expressed by a new character泳．

羌是我国古代西北地区的少数民族之一。其地风俗以游牧为业，其人则身穿羊皮衣，头戴羊皮帽，帽上通常还有羊毛的装饰。甲骨文羌字，正像一个头戴羊毛装饰的人形，有的人形脖子上还有绳索。这是因为羌人是当时汉族的敌人，在战争中常被汉人掠为俘虏、奴隶，甚至被当作祭品，所以常以绳索捆绑之。

羌is the name of a national minority in China, who lived in the northwest in ancient times. They were a nomadic tribe, living on the sheep. They wore clothes and hats made of sheepskin, and there were often woolen decorations on the hats. In the Oracle-Bone Inscriptions, the character羌looks like a man with woolen decorations on the head. Sometimes, there is a rope round the neck. This is a reflection of a fact that the Qiang and Han were enemies then, and the Qiang people would be taken prisoner and tied up when they were defeated.

甲骨文和早期金文的竞字，像两个人一起并肩向前奔走之形，其本义为“互相争逐而行”，如竞逐、竞走等；引申为“争强”“较量”之义，如竞争、竞技、竞赛等。

In the Oracle-Bone Inscriptions and early Bronze Inscriptions, the character 竞looks like two men running shoulder to shoulder. Its primary meaning is“to strive to go ahead of sb. else”, e.g．竞逐 (to catch up and take the lead), and 竞走(a heel-andtoe walking race). Its extended meanings include“to compete”(竞争)and“to contest”(竞赛).

甲骨文的仆字，像一个人手捧箕具的样子，其中人形的头上从辛。辛是古代刑具，表示该人是受过刑的战俘或罪人。人形的臀下有尾毛，是对奴隶的一种侮辱性装饰。箕上的几点代表尘土，表示铲土扬尘的意思。因此，仆字的本义是指手捧箕具从事家务劳动的奴隶，即奴仆、仆人。

In the Oracle-Bone Inscriptions, the character 仆 looks like a man holding a winnowing pan. The part atop the man's head is 辛，an instrument of torture, signalling that the man is a prisoner of war or criminal, who has been put to torture. The tail at the buttocks of the man is a sign of insult. The dots above the winnowing pan represent the dust to be rid of. So the primary meaning of仆is“a slave who winnows or does other chores”, e.g．奴仆(servant), and 仆人(domestic servant).

甲骨文、金文的尸字，均像一仰躺的侧视人形，本义为尸体，即人死后的躯体，所以楷书尸字在尸下加死字以表义。古代祭祀时，代死者受祭，象征死者神灵的人被称为“尸”（一般以臣下或死者的晚辈充任）。后世祭祀改为用牌位、画像，不再行用尸的制度。

In the Oracle-Bone Inscriptions and Bronze Inscriptions, the character 尸 looks like the profile of a man lying upturned. Its primary meaning is“a corpse”, “a dead body”, that is why in the Regular Script there is the character死(dead)under尸．In ancient times, the man who in the name of the dead accepted the sacrifice and worship at sacrificial rites was called尸，and尸usually be acted by liegemen or the junior of the dead. Later the custom was changed. A memorial tablet or portrait of the dead was used instead. So this meaning is no longer current.

臀，即髀（bì），指人体后面两股的上端和腰相连接的部分。甲骨文的臀字，是在人形的臀部加一指事符号以指示臀的位置。造字方法与“身”“肱”等字相同。从造字方法上来看，甲骨文臀字属指事字。此字后来演变为从骨（或肉）殿声的形声字。

臀 means“buttocks”. In the OracleBone Inscriptions, the character 臀 looks like a man with a sign marking the position of the buttocks, similar to the composition of many other characters, such as身(body) and 肱 (the upper arm). According to the way of character's creation，臀 in the Oracle-Bone Inscriptions is an indicative character．臀 has gradually come to be a phonetic, compounded with 骨 (or 肉) as the radical and殿as the phonetic.

远古时代，人们为了猎取野兽，头上戴着兽角，臀部接上一条尾巴，装扮成野兽的样子以便靠近它们。后来这兽角和尾巴逐渐变成了装饰，在庆典活动时戴着它跳舞。甲骨文的尾字，正像一个人在臀部下系一条尾巴状的饰物，其本义是指动物的尾巴，引申为末尾和在后面的意思。

In ancient times, people would dress up like wild animals, wearing horns on the head and attaching a tail at the buttocks, in order to get close to them and catch them. Later on these horns and tails became ornaments, people danced with these things on at ceremonies. In the Oracle-Bone Inscriptions, the character尾looks like a man with an ornamental tail at the buttocks. Its primary meaning is“the tail of an animal”, from which have derived its uses to refer to the end of something or something at the back.

甲骨文尿字，像一个侧立的人形，身前的三点代表激射的尿线，表示人站着撒尿的意思。小篆尿字从尾从水，构字方式与甲骨文不同，但意义相同。所以尿字的本义为撒尿，又指尿液。

In the Oracle-Bone Inscriptions, the character尿looks like the side view of a man, and there are three dots in front standing for the urine passed from the body. In the Later Seal Character, the character 尿 is composed, differently from that in the Oracle-Bone Inscriptions, of尾(tail)and水(water). But they mean the same, i.e.“to urinate”, or as a noun, “urine”.

甲骨文屎字，像一个蹲着的侧面人形，人形臀部下的几个小点代表从人肛门出来的排泄物，表示人拉屎的意思。因此，屎的本义指粪便。

In the Oracle-Bone Inscriptions, the character屎looks like the side view of a man squatting. The dots under the buttocks stand for the excrement passed from the body. Hence 屎 means“excrement”,“dung”or“droppings”.

甲骨文死字，右边是一个垂首跪地的人形，左边的歹表示死人枯骨，像活人跪拜于死人朽骨旁默默吊祭的样子，特指死亡、生命结束之义。由于死去的东西不会动，所以僵硬的、不灵活的东西也称为“死”，如死板（不灵活）、死气沉沉（形容气氛不活泼或精神消沉不振作）；再引申为坚决之义，如死心塌地（形容打定主意，决不改变）。

In the Oracle-Bone Inscriptions, the left side of the character死looks like a man on his knees lowering his head, and the 歹 on the right stands for the skeleton of a dead man. This is a picture of the living mourning on his knees over the dead. Hence its meaning“to die”, “to be dead”. As anything dead will not be able to move，死 is also used for things which are stiff, inflexible, e.g．死板(rigid)，死气沉沉 (lifeless), from which derives its meaning“to be determined”, e.g．死心塌地 (to be dead set).

小篆的葬字，中间为“死”，上下从草，表示人死后把尸体埋于荒郊野地的意思。所以葬的本义是指掩埋尸体，如埋葬、安葬；又泛指处理死者遗体，如火葬、海葬等。

In the Later Seal Character, the character葬has a dead part(死)in between two grass parts (草), signalling that a dead man is buried in a wilderness of weeds. Hence the primary meaning is“to bury the dead”. But it can also be used in a more general sense to refer to the ways to dispose of the dead, e.g．火葬(cremation), and海葬(sea-burial).

古文字的大字，是一个两手平伸、两脚分开正面而立的人形。大的本义指大人，即成年人或有地位的人；后来引申指在面积、体积、数量、力量、强度等方面超过一般或超过所比较的对象，与“小”相对。

In ancient writing systems, the character大 looks like the frontal view of a man with the hands stretched out and the legs apart. Originally it referred to an adult or a man of lofty position. But now it refers to anything greater in size, volume, number, strength, hardness, etc., as opposed to小(small).

天和元一样，都是指人的头部。早期甲骨文和金文的天字，像一个正面而立的人形，而特别突出了人的头部。和元字一样，这个头形后来也简化成一横，有的也在横上加一点指示头部所在。天的本义为人头或头顶，引申为指头顶以上的天空，还可以用来泛指自然界。凡自然生成的事物均可称为“天”，如天文、天气、天险、天然等。现在则把一昼夜之内的时间称为“一天”，如一整天、今天、明天等。

Similar to 元，天 originally meant the head of a man. In the early Oracle-Bone Inscriptions and early Bronze Inscriptions, the character 天 looks like the frontal view of a man with the head especially prominent. Also like what happened to 元，this head was later simplified into a horizontal stroke, on which sometimes there was a dot to signal the position of the head．天originally meant the head of a man, or the top of the head, but it has gradually come to mean the sky above the human head, and even more generally the whole natural world. Anything that comes naturally may be called 天，e.g.天文(astronomy)，天气(weather)，天险(natural barrier), and 天然 (natural). Nowadays，天 also means“day”, e.g．一整天(the whole day)，今天(today), and明天(tomorrow).

吴，是古代的国名和地名。西周初年，泰伯居吴（在今江苏无锡市梅里），后世兴盛称王，是为吴国，至公元前475年为越国所灭。其地在今江苏一带。该地以陶器、铁器等手工制造业而闻名。古文字的吴字，像人肩扛器皿（陶器之类）之形，是对陶器等手工制造者的形象描绘。吴字的本义即指制陶人，用作国名或地名，大概与该地人民善于制作陶器有关。

吴is a name of a place, also used as a name of a state or kingdom in ancient times. In the early West Zhou Dynasty，泰伯，a son of the then king, came to live in吴(now known as 梅里 in Wuxi, Jiangsu Province). His descendants became powerful and established the first state named by吴，which was destroyed by越(a state in present- day Zhejiang and Fujian) in 475 b.c.. The State of Wu occupied an area centred around Jiangsu, a place well-known for its handicrafts, such as earthware and ironware. That perhaps is the reason why the character吴in ancient writing systems looks like a man holding a piece of pottery on his shoulder. It's original meaning was the craftsman of making parthware.

甲骨文、金文的夭字，本像一个人奔跑时甩动双臂的样子，其本义即指人奔跑的样子。小篆形体发生讹变，夭字变成人头倾侧屈折之形，其意义也随之改变，即表示屈曲、摧折之义，又引申指人早死，即少壮而死。

In the Oracle-Bone Inscriptions and Bronze Inscriptions, the character 夭 looks like a man running with his arms swinging forward and backward, hence its origianl meaning“to run”. In the Later Seal Character，夭 undergoes some change in its shape, looking like a man with his head tilted, and its meaning is changed as well. It has come to mean“to bend”, “to break”, from which has derived its meaning“to die young”.

古文字交字像一个人两腿交叉的样子，其本义是交叉、交错的意思，引申为连接、结交、互相等义，如交界、交涉、交情、交心、交易、交流等。

In ancient writing systems, the character交 looks like a man with his legs crossed, hence the primary meaning is“to cross”, “to interlock”. Its extended meanings include“to link”and“to associate with”, e.g．交界(to have a common border)，交涉 (to negotiate),交情(friendship)，交心(to open one's heart to)，交易 (transaction), and交流(to exchange).

文是个象形字。甲骨文和金文的文，像一个正面站立的人形，人形的胸部刺画着花纹图案。这其实就是古代文身习俗的形象描绘。所以“文”本来的意思是指身上刺有花纹的人，又有花纹、纹理的意思，后来才引申出文字、文章、文化、文明等众多的意义。

文 is a pictograph. In the Oracle- Bone Inscriptions and Bronze Inscriptions, the character文 looks like the frontal view of a man with a tattoo on his chest. Hence the character 文 originally meant“a man with tattoos”, from which have derived the meanings of“a decorative pattern”or lines. Its uses in words like文字(characters;script; writing)，文化 (culture)，文章 (article), and 文明 (civilization) are all later developments.

按照古代礼制，男子到了二十岁，就要束发加冠，表明他已经是成年人。夫字从大从一，“大”为人，“一”表示用来束发的簪子。甲骨文、金文的夫字，像一个束发插簪的人形，它的本义即指成年男子。男子成年始成婚配，故“夫”可引申指丈夫，即女子的配偶，与“妇”“妻”相对；成年始服劳役，故夫又指服劳役或从事某种体力劳动的人，如渔夫、农夫等。

In ancient times, it was a custom for a man of twenty to have his hair held together and to put on a hat, to show that he had reached manhood. The character 夫 consists of 大 and一，the former meaning“man”, and the latter representing the hair clasp which does the holding. In the Oracle-Bone Inscriptions and Bronze Inscriptions, the character 夫 looks like a man with his hair held together by a hair clasp. Its primary meaning, therefore, is“adult man”. As a man is allowed to get married only after he has reached adulthood，夫 also means“husband”, in opposition to 妇(woman)or 妻(wife). An adult man would also have to serve as a forced labourer in ancient times, so 夫 is also used in the sense of“forced labourer”, and more generally, any type of labourer, e.g．渔夫(fisherman)and农夫(farmer).

亦是“腋（yè）”的本字。古文字的亦字，像一个正面站立的人形，两臂之下的两个点是指事符号，表示这里就是腋下。后来亦字多被借用为虚词，相当于“也”的意思，因此，只好另造了一个从月（肉）夜声的“腋”字来代替亦的本义。

亦was the original form of腋(yè, armpit). In ancient writing systems, the character 亦 looks like the frontal view of a man with two dots under the arms showing the position of the armpits. As 亦later came to be used as a function word, equivalent to也 (too), another character 腋，with 月 as the radical and 夜 as the phonetic, was invented to replace 亦 for its original meaning.

古文字的夹字，像左右两个小人搀扶着中间一个大人的样子，本义为夹持，即从左右相持，引申为辅佐之义。此外，夹还可以指两者之间的空隙，如夹缝、夹道等；又可以指里外两层，如夹（jiá）衣、夹被等。

In ancient writing systems, the character 夹 looks like two small men supporting a big man in the middle, hence the primary meaning is“to help from the sides”or“to assist”. In addition, it is used in the sense of“space between two things”, e.g．夹缝(a space between two adjacent things) and 夹道(passageway). And it can also be used to refer to things made up of two layers, e.g．夹衣(a traditional Chinese coat with a thick lining) and 夹被 (a quilt without the padding material in between).

甲骨文、金文的立字，像一个正面站立的人形，人的脚下一条横线代表地面，表示一个人站立在地面之上。所以立的本义就是站，引申指树立、设置、建立等义，如立功、立法、立威等。此外，古代君王即位也称“立”。

In the Oracle-Bone Inscriptions and Bronze Inscriptions, the character 立 looks like the frontal view of a man on his feet, with a line underneath signalling the ground, hence the primary meaning is“to stand”.“to set up”and“to establish”are its extended meanings, e.g．立功(to do a deed of merit)，立法(to make a law), and 立威(to build up one's prestige). In ancient times, the ascending of a new emperor to the throne was also called立．

“位”与“立”本来是一个字，都写作“立”, “位”是后起的字。位字从人从立，本义当指人所站立的位置，引申为指人的身份、地位，又泛指方位、位置。

The character 位，consisting of 人 (man) and 立 (to stand), refers primarily to the place where a man stands, and the office of a king or the rank of a minister in particular. Thus the Origin of Chinese Characters says, “The position at court in which a man stands is known as 位”. It is also used to refer to the capacity and status of a person, or more generally, to the location of anything.

金文的替字，由两个立字组成，像两个人一前一后之形，表示替换、接替之意。所以替字的本义为更换、接替、替代，引申为废弃、衰败之义。

In the Bronze Inscriptions, the character替consists of two立and looks like two men in an arrangement of one in front of the other, signalling that one is to take the place of the other. Hence the character 替 primarily means“to replace”, “to substitute for”, from which have derived the senses“to discard”and“to be on the decline”.

在古代，人们为了狩猎，往往在头上戴上兽角或羽毛做成的装饰，以便接近禽兽。后来这种兽角或羽毛逐渐成为了装饰品，戴在头上成为美的标志，这就是甲骨文和早期金文美字的来历。后代美字从羊从大，即是由此演变而来，表示头戴羊角为美。因此，美字的本义是指人的装束漂亮好看，引申为指人的容貌、声色、才德或品格的好，同时还可用来指食物味道的甘美。

In ancient times, people would wear horns or feathers on their heads in order to get close to wild animals and catch them. Later on horns and feathers of this type became decorations to be put on the head as a sign of beauty. This is the origin of the character 美 in the Oracle-Bone Inscriptions and Bronze Inscriptions, from which derived the later form of 美， consisting of 羊 (sheep) and 大 (man). That is to say a man with sheep horns on the head is regarded as beautiful. So, originally 美 meant the beautiful decorations of a person. Its use to refer to the looks, talents or virtue of a person is a later development. And its sense has also been extended to cover the sweet taste of food.

甲骨文、金文的央字，像人用扁担挑物之形，担物时人在中间，所以央字有中间之义，如中央（即中间）。央字又有穷尽的意思，如长乐未央。此外，央还有恳求之义，如央求。

In the Oracle-Bone Inscriptions and Bronze Inscriptions, the character央looks like a man carrying something with a bamboo pole. As the things are hung from the two ends of the carrying pole, and the man is in the middle, the character央has the primary meaning of“middle”, e.g．中央(central). But央can also mean“end”, e.g．长乐未央(happy without end). Another extended meaning of央is“to ask earnestly”, e.g．央求(to beg; to plead).

金文的黑字，像一个被烟火熏烤的人，大汗淋漓、满面污垢的样子。它的本义指被火熏黑，引申为泛指黑色，与“白”相对。黑色暗淡，故黑字引申为指黑暗，即昏暗无光的意思；又引申为指隐秘的，不公开的。

In the Bronze Inscriptions, the character 黑 looks like a man sweating with heat from a fire and blackened with smoke from it. It is primarily used to refer to something blackened by smoke, and more generally, to anything that is black in colour, as against白(white). The colour of black is dim, so 黑 is also used in the sense of darkness, from which derive the further extended meanings of“secret”and“covered”.

夷，是古代汉族对边远少数民族和外国人的通称。在古代，汉族以华夏为中心，蔑视和虐待其他民族，常把他们抓来当作奴隶或作为祭祀时的牺牲品。古文字中的夷字，多用“尸”字来代替，显然含有鄙视侮辱的意思。而金文夷字又有作一正面人形被绳索五花大绑之形，则是表示把少数民族的人抓来做奴隶或牺牲品的意思。

夷 in ancient times was a general term for the national minorities in remote areas and foreigners. At that time the Han people regarded their own land as the centre, and despised and tyrannized other nationalities, who were often used as slaves or sacrifices. In ancient writing systems, these people were often referred to as 尸(corpse), showing open contempt for them. On the other hand, the character 夷 in the Bronze Inscriptions looks like the frontal view of a man tied up with ropes, signalling that he has been captured and is used as a slave or sacrifice.

甲骨文舞字，像一个手持树枝（或飘带）翩跹起舞的人形，本义指舞蹈。此字后来由于多被借用为有无之无（無），所以金文的舞字特意加上辵旁表示舞蹈的动作，小篆以后则普遍加双脚形。这样，舞与无（無）就不再混淆了。而舞字除舞蹈之义外，还含有舞动、戏弄等义，如挥舞、舞弄等。

In the Oracle-Bone Inscriptions, the character 舞 looks like a man dancing with branches or ribbons in hand, hence the primary meaning is“to dance”. As this character was often used in the sense of 无“( without”, the original complicated form being 無), in the Bronze Inscriptions, a component辵signalling the use of legs, was added to emphasize its primary meaning. In the Later Seal Character, on the other hand, a part representing two legs was added. So that 舞 and 无(無) would no longer be confused. In addition, the character 舞 can also mean“to wave”(舞动)and“to wield (swords and spears)”(舞弄).

传说上古时代，有一位圣人叫有巢氏。他教人们在树上构木为巢，作为居住的场所，用以躲避野兽和洪水的侵袭。这种在树上居住的方式，被称为“巢居”。这是一种非常原始的生活方式。甲骨文、金文的乘字，就是一个人爬到树顶上的形象，是巢居生活的形象写照。因此，乘的本义为爬树，引申为指爬、登、乘坐（如乘车、乘船、乘马等）之义。

It is said that in the remote ages, there was a sage called You Chao (Nester), who taught people to build nests on trees for homes, so as to protect themselves from the attacks of wild animals and floods. This primitive way of life, to dwell on tress, is known as nesting. In the Oracle- Bone Inscriptions and Bronze Inscriptions, the character乘，in the shape of a man on top of a tree, is a vivid description of nesting. Hence the original meaning of 乘 was“to climb trees”, from which have derived its extended meanings“to climb”, “to ascend”and“to ride”, e.g．乘车(to take a bus)，乘船(to travel by boat)and乘马(to ride a horse).

女，指女性，与男性相对。在古代，女性地位低下。体现在字形上，甲骨文的女字像一个双膝跪地的人形，两手交叉垂下，一副低眉顺眼、卑恭屈服的样子。后代的女字，渐渐地由跪变立，但屈腿弯腰，仍是一副柔顺的姿态。

女 means“female”, opposite to 男(male). In the old days, the female had a very low social status, and this is reflected in the form of the character 女． In the OracleBone Inscriptions, this character looks like a woman on her knees, with her arms lowered and crossed, a show of complete subservience. In the later writing systems, the kneeling woman stands up, but her waist and legs are bent, still a posture displaying her meek and mild nature.

古文字的母字，像一个敛手屈膝的女子，胸部的两点代表突出的乳房。母的本义当指成年生育过的女子，又特指母亲。由母亲一义，母字又被用作女性尊长的通称，如伯母、祖母等。因为母能生子，所以母字也引申为指事物的本源。此外，母也泛指雌性的动物，如母鸡、母牛等。

In ancient writing systems, the character 母 looks like a woman on her knees, with her arms crossed in the front, and there are two dots on the chest representing the breasts．母primarily refers to a woman who has children, i.e. mother. From this sense, it has derived its use as a general term for senior females in the family, e.g．伯母(aunt)，祖母(grandmother); and even more generally for all female animals, e.g.母鸡(hen)and母牛(cow). As mothers are able to produce the young，母may also be used in the sense of“origin”.

甲骨文的每字，像一个敛手腹前跪坐地上的女子，她的头上插戴着花翎锦羽一类的装饰。金文的字形略有变化，即在原来女字中间加两点表示乳房，女字变成母字，仍是代表女性。女人头戴羽翎，男人头戴兽角（如美字），在古人眼中就是一种美的象征，所以每字的本义是指妇女之美。每和美字的构造方法相近，表达的意义也相近，只不过一个是指女性之美，一个代表男性之美。后来“美”行而“每”废。每字被借用来作虚词，表示“往往”“时常”“每次”“逐一”等义，它的本义也就很少有人知道了。

In the Oracle-Bone Inscriptions, the character每looks like a woman on her knees, with her arms crossed in the front, and there are ornamental plumes on her head. In the Bronze Inscriptions, the shape of the character is changed, with two dots representing the breasts added. In other words, the lower part changes from the component 女 into 母， though the meaning is not changed, as it still signifies the female. In ancient times, it was a sign of beauty for a woman to have plumes on her head, similar to a man wearing animal horns on the head (as in the character 美), so 每 originally was used to refer to the beauty of a woman. The characters每and美were composed in the same way and had similar meanings, except that the former was used for women while the latter for men. Later on, the use of美spread and每，in the sense of beauty, fell into disuse. It has come to be used as a function word instead, signalling“frequently”, “every”or“each”. And few people nowadays know its original meaning.

要为“腰”的本字。金文的要字，下面的“女”代表人形，“女”上的部分代表人的腰部，上面是两手叉腰状。小篆的要字，像一个人双手叉腰站立的样子，较之金文更为形象。要的本义为腰，后多借用为求、取等义，如要求、要挟等。腰在人体的中枢位置，所以要又有枢要的意思，读yào，引申为重要之义，又指重要的内容，如纲要、要点等。

要 was the original form of 腰．In the Bronze Inscriptions, the lower part of the character，女，stands for a human being, and the upper part looks like two hands on the sides, hence it refers to the waist of a person. In the Later Seal Character, the character要， more picturelike than in the Bronze Inscriptions, looks like a person with arms akimbo. Though the original meaning of要was“waist”, it is more usually used in the senses“to demand”and“to ask”, e.g．要求(to demand)，要挟 (to coerse). As the waist occupies the central position in a human body,要 pronounced as yào, also takes on the sense of“key position”, from which have derived its senses of“important”, “the main points”or“essentials”.

古代通常把战俘和罪犯充当奴隶，以供役使。古文字的妾字，从女从辛，其中辛是一种刑具，表示这是一个受过刑罚的女奴隶。因此，妾的本义是指女奴隶，又引申为指小妾，即正妻之外的小老婆。此外，妾又是旧时女子自称的谦词。

In ancient times, prisoners of war and criminals were often used as slaves to do forced labour. The character 妾 in ancient writing systems consists of女(woman)and辛(an instrument of torture), signalling that this is a woman slave, who has been put to torture. So the original meaning of 妾 was a woman slave. The use of 妾 in the sense of concubine is an extended meaning. In the past, the character was also used by women as an expression of selfdepreciation.

古代的奴隶，多为在战争中抓来的俘虏和从别的部落中掳掠的人口。古文字的奴字，像一只大手抓住一个女子的形状，其本义当指女奴、婢女，又泛指奴隶。

In ancient times, slaves were usually prisoners of war or civilians captured from other tribes. In ancient writing systems, the character奴has the shape of a big hand in possession of a woman, hence its meaning is“woman slave”, “servant-girl”, or more generally, slave of any type.

妻指的是男子的配偶，相当于口语中的老婆、太太。古文字的妻字像一个人用手（又）抓住女人的头发之形。这实际上就是古代抢婚习俗的形象描绘。抢婚习俗曾经在原始社会风行，即某一部落的男子可以到另一部落中去抢掠女子为妻。这种习俗在后代虽然被取消，但强抢民女为妻的野蛮现象却还是时有发生。在古代，妻既然是指抢来的老婆，其社会地位低下是不言而喻的。

妻refers to the spouse of a man, i.e. his wife. In ancient writing systems, the character妻looks like a man getting hold of a woman's hair. This is in fact a vivid description of the practice of marriage by capture at that time:a man would go to another tribe and abduct a woman as his wife. Since the wife was obtained by force, she would naturally have no position at home at all. It is only in civilized societies, where equality between men and women is a major concern, that wives are no longer taken by force.

古人崇尚多子多福的观念，又提倡孝道，认为“不孝有三，无后为大”。因此，衡量一个女子的好坏首先是以其能否生育为标准的。好字从女从子，是表示妇女生育而有子的意思。妇女有子能生儿育女，就是好。好字用作形容词，有美和善的意思，与“坏”相对。好又可以读作hào，用作动词，表示喜欢、喜爱之义，如好奇、嗜好等。

In the traditional view, more children meant more happiness. And people were urged to observe filial piety, according to which among the three sins of an unworthy descendant, not to have any children was the biggest. So the first requirement of a good woman was to be able to bear children. The character好consists of女(woman)and子(child), signalling that for a woman to bear children constitutes what is good. The character好，as an adjective, has the senses of“good”and“kind”, as against坏(bad). It can also be used as a verb, pronunced as hào, meaning“to like”, “to love”, e.g．好奇(to be curious)and嗜好(to have a liking for).

娶字是个会意兼形声的字。娶字从取从女，表示把女子娶过来成亲的意思；同时，取又代表娶字的读音，所以它又是一个从女取声的形声字。娶的本义是指男子娶妻结婚，与“嫁”相对。

娶is both an ideograph and a phonetic compound. It consists of 取(to get) and 女(woman), meaning to take a woman to wife. The component取at the same time serves as the phonetic, in which case，女 is seen as the radical, it thus is also a phonetic compound．娶，for a man to get married with a woman, is opposite to嫁，for a woman to get married with a man.

甲骨文的身字，像一个腹部隆凸的人形，其本义当指妊娠，即妇女身怀有孕的意思。身又指人或动物的躯体、身体，引申指自身、自我，又引申为亲自之义。凡从“身”的字，大都与人的身体有关，如躬、躲、躺、躯等。

In the Oracle-Bone Inscriptions, the character 身 looks like a woman with a round abdomen, hence its primary meaning: to be pregnant．身 also means the body of a human being or animal, with its extended meanings of“oneself”,“personally”or“in person”. Characters with 身 as a component all have to do with the body, e.g．躬(to bend forward;to bow)，躲(to hide)，躺(to lie down)and躯(the human body).

甲骨文的孕字，像一个大腹便便的侧面人形，人的腹中有“子”，表示怀有身孕的意思。小篆字形讹变，不但腹中之“子”跑了出来，而且“人”形也已变样，最后演变成楷书从乃从子的“孕”字。孕的本义为怀胎、生育，一般是指在母体中孳养婴儿的胚胎，后也比喻在既存事物中培养出新生事物。

In the Oracle-Bone Inscriptions, the character孕looks like the side view of a human body with 子 in the abdomen, signalling she is pregnant. In the Later Seal Character, the shape of the character is changed. The 子 inside the abdomen comes to the outside and the 人 also changes its form, ending up as an ideograph consisting of 乃 and 子 in the Regular Script. This character primarily means“to be pregnant”, “to breed”, but it is also used metaphorically to refer to the development of new things out of the existing ones.

甲骨文、金文的育字，像一个妇女正在生育的形状。女人形的下部为一个头朝下的“子”形，像婴儿刚从母体中分娩出来的样子；“子”下的三点，则表示产子时流出来的胎液。其字形本为“毓”字。育的本义为生育，即生孩子，引申指抚养、培养之义。

In the Oracle-Bone Inscriptions and Bronze Inscriptions, the character 育looks like a woman in the process of giving birth to a baby. Under the part signalling a woman, there is the component 子 with its head down signalling the newborn baby. The three dots underneath the baby signal the liquid coming along with it．毓was the original form of 育．The primary meaning of 育 is“to give birth to”, but it is also used in the senses“to rear”, “to raise”and“to bring up”.

甲骨文、金文的子字，均像一个头大身小的婴孩形象，主要有两种表现方式：一像新生婴儿裹在襁褓之中双手乱动的样子；一像小孩双脚立地而突出表现其头发稀疏、脑囟未合的特征。因此，子字的本义是指婴儿，引申为指子嗣，即儿女。子又借用为干支名，是十二地支的第一位。汉字中凡从“子”的字，大都与婴孩或子嗣有关，如孩、孙、孝、孕、字等。

In the Oracle-Bone Inscriptions and Bronze Inscriptions, the character子 looks like a baby with a big head and a small body. In some writings, the baby in swaddling clothes is waving its arms. In others, the baby is on its feet, with very little hair and the fontanelles are not closed yet. The character 子refers to baby, and descendants in general. But it is also used as a name of the first of the twelve Earthly Branches, a traditional Chinese system of sequence.Characters with 子 as a component most have to do with the baby or descendant, e.g．孩 (child)，孙(grand child)，孝 (filial piety)，孕 (to be pregnant) and 字 ([derivative] character).

甲骨文乳字，像一人胸前乳头突出，又双臂抱子让他吮吸奶水的形状，其本义为喂奶、哺乳，即以乳汁喂婴儿，又指吃奶。乳字由吃奶之义，引申为泛指饮、喝，如“乳血餐肤”；由喂奶之义又引申为泛指奶汁、乳房；再由哺乳婴儿之义引申为指产子、生育之义，又指刚生育过的或刚生下的、幼稚的。

In the Oracle-Bone Inscriptions, the character 乳 looks like a woman with nipples standing out and a baby in her arms, hence the primary meaning is“to breastfeed a baby”. From this primary meaning derives the meaning of sucking or drinking in general, e.g．乳血餐肤(to suck blood and eat flesh). Its extended meanings include“milk”, “breast”,“to give birth to”, and even“one who has just become a mother”or“newborn”.

字的构形，上部一个宝盖头（宀）代表房子，下面一个子表示婴儿。婴儿在屋内，表示生育之义，引申为指养育、滋生、孳乳等义。古人把最早产生的独体象形字称为“文”，而把由两个或两个以上的独体字组合而成的合体字叫做“字”。因为合体“字”是由独体的“文”孳乳衍生出来的，所以称“字”。后世“文”“字”不分，多以“字”来作为文字的通称。

The character字consists of a house part(宀)and a baby part(子). In other words, it signals that there is a baby in a house, hence its original meaning is“giving birth to”and extended meanings is“raising”and“multiplying”. In ancient times, the monadic pictographs were known as 文，while those made up of two or more monads were known as 字，in the sense that they were derivatives from monads. Nowadays, however, the two characters are no longer distinguished in this way, and字has become the general term for characters, or writing.

婴儿初生，不能行立，如何护理，实非易事。常见的办法是把婴儿抱在胸前或背在后面。甲骨文和早期金文的保字，像一个人把婴儿放在背上并伸出一只手在后面加以保护的样子。后来这只手形与人形分裂，变成右下的一点，为了平衡，又在子字的左下增加一点，原有象形意味就荡然无存了。总之，保字的本义是背负，引申为护理、抚养、养育之义，进一步引申为保护、保佑、守卫等义。

A new-born baby, unable to stand on its own feet and walk, has to be put under the care of the adult. Usually the baby is carried in the arms or on the back. In the Oracle- Bone Inscriptions and early Bronze Inscriptions, the character 保 looks like a man carrying a baby on his back, with an arm stretched out to prevent it from falling. In other writing systems, the arm part is separated from the man part and becomes a dot on the right. To redress the balance, another dot is added on the left, resulting in a total destruction of the original picturelike image. In short, the original meaning of 保 was the same as 抱，i.e. to hold in the arms. The meanings“to take care of”, “to raise”and“to bring up”are its earlier extended meanings, and“to protect”, “to guard”and“to defend”are its later extended meanings.

古文字的儿字，像一个婴儿的形状：身小头大，囟门尚未闭合。《说文解字》:“儿，孺子也。……象小儿头囟未合。”所以儿的本义即指儿童。在古时，男称儿，女称婴，但笼统而言皆称儿。

In ancient writing systems, the character儿looks like a baby with a big head and a small body, and the fontanelles are not closed yet. The Origin of Chinese Characters says, “儿 means baby. ...like the fontanelles which have not been closed yet.”Hence the primary meaning of 儿 is“little child”. In ancient times, a boy was called 儿，and a girl婴． But this distinction was not always kept and 儿 could sometimes refer to children of both sexes.

孙字从子从系，子是小儿形，系是绳索形，绳索有系联之义，表示子孙连续不断。孙的本义指孙子，即儿子的儿子，也泛指孙子以后的各代，如曾孙、玄孙。

The character 孙 consists of子and系．The former looks like a child and the latter is in the shape of a rope signalling connection. Hence the character 孙 signifies children in succession．孙primarily refers to the son of a son, i.e. grandson, but it is also used for the later generations, e.g.曾孙 (great-grandson) and 玄孙(great-great-grandson).

古代“朴作教刑”（以棍棒作为教学的工具），用肉体的惩罚来督导学习，所谓“不打不成材”。这种“棍棒政策”的教育就很生动地表现在教字的字形上。古文字的教字，右边像人手持教鞭（或棍棒），左边一个“子”表示儿童，“子”上的两个叉代表算数的筹策（小木棍或草杆），所以教字的本义为督导儿童学习，引申为指导、培育、训诲等义。

In ancient times, corporal punishment was a commonplace in education. The rod was regarded as a necessary instrument for teaching, as the saying goes“Spare the rod and spoil the child”. The composition of the character 教 is a picturelike reflection of this practice. In ancient writing systems, its right part looks like a man holding a rod while the left is made up of 子(child) and two crosses above representing counters for addition and subtraction. So the primary meaning of教is“to urge pupils to study”, and it is more generally used in the senses of“giving guidance”, “educating”and“teaching”.

学是一个会意字。甲骨文的学字，像人双手摆弄筹策（小木棍或草杆）来算数的样子；金文增加一个“子”，表示是儿童在学习算数。因此，学字的本义即为学习、仿效；引申为指学问、学说、知识等，如品学兼优（人品和学问都很优秀）；又可以用来指人学习的场所，即学校。

学is an ideograph. In the Oracle-Bone Inscriptions, the character学looks like a man setting counters in order to learn to do sums. In the Bronze Inscriptions, the component子is added to make it clear that it is a child who is learning to count. So its primary meaning is“to learn”, and the senses of“learning”, “theory”and“knowledge”are its extended meanings, e.g．品学兼优 (of both good character and scholarship). It can also be used to refer to the place where one learns, i.e. school.

甲骨文、金文的长字，是一个手拄拐杖的老人形，而特别突出其长发飘飘的特征。长字的本义是老人，引申为指尊长，即辈分大、职位高的人，又指首领。用作动词，长字又有生长、滋长、增长、成长等义。此外，长还可读为cháng，为长短之长，引申为指长远、长久等。

In the Oracle-Bone Inscriptions and Bronze Inscriptions, the character 长 looks like an old man with a walking stick in hand, and the long white beard on his chin is especially noticeable, hence the primary meaning is“old man”. Its extended meanings include“senior”(older or of higher rank) and“chief”.When it is used as a verb, it means“to grow”, “to develop”and“to increase”．长 can also be pronounced as cháng, meaning“long”.

甲骨文、金文的老字，像一个弯腰驼背、老态龙钟的老人拄拐杖的样子。老的本义指老人，即年岁大的人；引申为指年岁大，与“少”或“幼”相对；又指陈旧，与“新”或“嫩”相对。

In the Oracle-Bone Inscriptions and Bronze Inscriptions, the character老 looks like an old doddering man, back bent and a stick in hand, hence its primary meaning is“a man of old age”. Its extended meanings include“old in age”contrasted with 少，幼(young), and“belonging to past times”, contrated with 新 (new) or 嫩(tender).

孝是古代封建社会所崇奉的道德标准之一。旧时称善于侍奉父母为“孝”。古文字的孝字，上部是一个弯腰驼背白发飘飘的老人形，下边的子代表小孩，表示小孩搀扶老人的意思。敬重老人，帮助老人，这正是孝道的具体表现之一。孝又指居丧，即在尊长死后一定时期内要遵守一定的礼俗。

孝，filial piety, was one of the old moral concepts in Chinese feudal society, according to which children should be obedient to their parents at any time. In ancient writing systems, the character 孝 is made up of two parts: the upper part representing an old man with a long white beard and a bent back, and the lower part a child. The child is under the old man, suggesting that the former is helping the latter. To respect and help the old is one of the contents of filial piety．孝 can also mean to observe certain codes of behaviour during the mourning period of one's seniors.

金文的殷字，像人手持一根针形的器具往一个腹部膨大的人身上刺扎之形，表示医治疾病之义。殷的本义为医治，引申为治理、定正之义。此外，殷还有盛大、众多、富足等义。

In the Bronze Inscriptions, the character 殷 looks like a man giving an acupuncture treatment to a patient who has a swollen belly. Hence the original meaning is“medical treatment”, from which derive the meanings“to treat”or“to adjust.”In addition，殷 also means“grand”, “great number of”and“well-off”.

古文字夏字，像一个挺胸叉腰、四肢健壮、高大威武的人形，其本义指高大威武之人，引申为指物之壮大者。古代汉族自称为“夏”，又称“华夏”。我国第一个朝代称为夏朝，而现在的夏字多作为姓氏使用。此外，夏又用作季节名，是春夏秋冬四季的第二季。

In ancient writing systems, the character 夏 looks like a big man of strong limbs, who sticks out his chest with the hands on the sides. In ancient times, the Han people called themselves by the name 夏，or 华夏．The first dynasty in the Chinese recorded history is known as the Xia Dynasty. But nowadays the character 夏 is usually used as a surname. In addition, it is also used for the second season of the year, i.e. summer. wzK8wVsXC7BTMBuAv4xkkFpXy9zoq/O4jHyH1WFTfPrxNndlQbVsrdtdnM4ntv2K