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We take it for granted that to understand the tourist buying decision process is essential if we are to understand and predict demand for tourism．Demand for tourism at the individual level can be treated as a consumption process that is influenced by a number of factors：needs and desires，availability of time and money，or images，motivation，perceptions and attitude．There is a diversity of consumer behavior with decision being made for a range of reasons．Many variables will influence the consumption pattern of a tourist．In the chapter，we shall mainly focus on the concepts relating to motivation，and determinants of demand that have a great influence on the decision-making process of a tourist．
旅游需求弹性大，与一般普通商品消费行为相比，旅游者的购买决策过程有何不同？购买决策过程受哪些因素影响？
Tourist motivation
The classic dictionary definition of motivation is derived from the word “motivation”which is to cause a person to act in a certain way，or to stimulate interest．We can also refer to the word “motive”which is concerned with initiating movement or inducing a person to act．As would be expected，many texts associated with tourism utilize the concept of motivation as a major influential impact upon consumer behavior．McIntosh，Goeldner and Ritchie（1995）outline four categories of motivation：
1． physical motivators ：those related to refreshment of body and mind，health purpose，sport and pleasure．This group of motivators is seen to be linked to those activities which will reduce tension．
2． culture motivation ：those identified by the desire to see and know more about other cultures，to find out about the natives of a country，their lifestyle，music，art，folklore，dance，etc．
3． interpersonal motivation ：This group includes a desire to meet new people，visit friends or relative，and to seek new and different experience．Travel is an escape from routine relationships with friends or neighbors or the home environment or it is used for spiritual reasons．
4． status and prestige motivation ：These include a desire for continuation of education．Such motivators are seen to be concerned with the desire for recognition and attention from others，in order to boost personal ego．This category also includes personal development in relation to the pursuit of hobbies and education．
关于动机的成因，以戴恩（Dann）的“推—拉理论”最有影响力。戴恩认为，旅游动机可分为二类：一为内在需求，即心理类旅游动机，研究者称为“推力”，如：逃避现实、免除压力的欲望、满足其自尊、挑战、冒险的渴望等；二为外在刺激，即目标类旅游动机，被研究者称之为“拉力”，如：历史悠久的名胜古迹、独特的自然景观、新奇和特色的旅游活动项目、旅游设施和旅游服务等。在实际的旅游行为动机研究中，多数人都承认旅游行为具有多重动机，都是在“推”和“拉”的合力下产生的。
分组讨论：旅游动机有不同的分类，请运用戴恩（Dann）的“推—拉理论”，以小组同学的旅游经历为例，分析其旅游动机属于哪一类型。
Determinants of demand for tourism
Even if an individual has the motivation to travel，he cannot do so at will．There are a lot of factors which can influence the possible decision and choice of his．These factors are connected with both the individual factors and the supply environment，which we refer to the determinants of demand．For example，a person must have a certain amount of disposable income so as to take part in tourism activity．This income and his choice of the type of tourism will，in turn，be affected by many factors such as job type，life-cycle stage，mobility，level of educational attainment and personality
．
影响旅游需求的因素很多，可分为个人因素和供给因素二大类。从需求方面来讲，旅游者购买产品决策会受到个人偏好结构等因素的影响。偏好结构是由个性、生活方式、认知角度和动机构成的。此外，个人因素还有家庭生命周期等因素，对旅游者的消费行为将产生重要影响。从供给方面来看，旅游者购买产品决策会受到旅游吸引物、产品价格及其服务等因素的影响。本文重点学习旅游者的生活方式（lifestyle）和家庭生命周期（family cycle）对旅游者决策和消费行为的影响。
When making a plan to travel，an individual must take many interrelated factors into account to decide the type of tourism he will participate in．These factors can be broadly divided into two groups．The lifestyle factors and family life-cycle factors always interact and mutually influence each other．
1．The first group of factors has something to do with lifestyle．It is made up of such factors as income，employment，holiday entitlement，educational attainment and mobility．
2．The second group has something to do with life cycle．It mainly refers to the age and family circumstances of an individual，which are crucial to the amount and type of tourism demanded．
Naturally，these factors do not function separately．They work together to help the individual to make a decision．
Income and employment
Income and employment are two important factors which can influence an individual’s decision on such matters as the level and the nature of tourism．It is necessary for the individual to earn a certain amount of income to realize his travel desire．After all，tourism is an expensive activity．This income does not refer to the
gross income
but the disposal
discretionary income
，i．e．the income left over after the expenditures of tax，housing and the basics of life are paid．The nature of employment can determine how much a person can earn and whether he can enjoy a paid holiday or not．These，in turn，affect both
travel propensity
and the type of holiday demanded，just as the mechanism of peer pressure and reference group do．
旅游倾向（Travel propensity）：指测定人口中有效需求的指标，直接考察旅游在人口中的渗透程度。分两类：（1）净旅游倾向：指在一定的时间内至少参加一次旅游的人数占人口总数的比例。（2）总旅游倾向：指参加旅游的总人数占人口总数的比例。
参照群体（Reference group）是个体购买或消费决策时用以作为参照、比较的个人或群体。
旅游者在做出旅游决策之前，会受到参考群体的影响，如家人意见的影响，还可能受到朋友、同事、邻居甚至陌生人的影响。
旅游是奢侈品，不像生活必需品已形成购买习惯，受参照群体的影响大。
旅游产品有消费异地性的特征，决策风险大，旅游消费行为受参考群体影响大。
在旅游产品导入期，旅游者的产品购买决策受参照群体影响大；在衰退期，参照群体影响小。
旅游活动与群体功能的关系密切，个体在旅游活动中遵守群体规范的压力较大。
Paid holiday entitlement
As documents show，most individuals in the developed world have witnessed the increase in leisure time since 1950．However，It is hard to understand the relationship between an individual’s total time budget，leisure time and
paid holiday entitlement
．Different nations have different holiday arrangements，of which one-day national holiday takes up a large part．According to the law or collective agreements，people in most nations are also entitled to enjoy annual paid holiday，which obviously influences their travel propensity．But in fact the relationship between paid holiday entitlement and travel propensity is not so simple．And just like the income variable，it is easier to comprehend the relationship when it is at the extremes．
For example，if an individual has less chance to enjoy annual paid holiday，he can hardly realize his travel desire．On the contrary，if he has more chances，he is more likely to be motivated to travel．This is partly determined by the interrelationship between entitlement and factors such as job status，income and mobility．However，if an individual enjoys more paid holiday entitlement，he may prefer to spend it at home rather than go traveling．
带薪假期是除了国家法定假期以外，企业内部给予员工的一种福利假期。带薪假期一般没有固定日期，只有固定天数，由员工根据自己的需要安排休假日。员工享受假日的同时，还享受正常薪水待遇。带薪假期起源于西方国家，除了工龄带薪假期外，还有男性陪产假、旅游假、儿童节亲子假等，被认为是人性化关怀的休假制度，对于人们的旅游度假，特别是长距离旅游有很大的促进作用。
Education and mobility
Level of education attainment plays an important role in an individual’s travel propensity．Those who have received a higher level of education have a stronger desire to travel owing to the stimulation of education．And travel can in turn broaden their horizons and enrich their knowledge．Therefore，they are more active to grasp travel opportunities and more likely to be attracted by various information，media，advertising and sales promotion．
Another factor which exerts a great impact on travel propensity is
personal mobility
，especially with regard to holidays spent in one’s own country．
Car is the main tool a tourist can use to entertain himself during the trip．An individual who owns a car has more opportunity to enjoy the pleasure of travel than those who don’t．
移动性是旅游的基本特征，无论是旅游者外出旅行，旅游景区做规划，还是旅游产业的空间布局，都与旅游的时空移动有很大关联。个人移动的能力和范围对其旅游的倾向性会产生重要作用。
After we learn the concepts of motivation and determinants of demand for tourism it is important for us to know how a tourist makes the decision for travel．Tourist behavior is quite different from other types of consumer behavior，for tourism is not a necessity，but a luxurious product which has characteristics of intangibility，inseparability，variability，perishability，and no transfer of the ownership．The buying decision process is influenced by
energizers of demand
such as motivation，
effectors of demand
such as a process of learning，attitudes and associations from promotional messages and information as well as
determinants of demand
such as lifestyle determinants and family life cycle variables．
Table 3.1 A traditional family life cycle
Source：William D．Wells and George Gubar，“Life Cycle Concept in Marketing Research，”Journal of Marketing Research，November 1986，pp.355-363 J．Paul Peter and Jerry C．Olson，Consumer Behavior：Marketing Strategy Perspective（Homewood，Illinois，Richard D．Irwin）．p.459
There are many different distinctive patterns of demand at each stage in the life cycle show something in common：
·Preoccupations—which are the mental concern out of motivations；
·Interests—which are feeling of what an individual would like to do or represent the awareness of an idea or opportunity；
·Activities—which are the actions of an individual．
个体在生命周期的每一个阶段有什么共同点或相同的行为特征？请举例说明。
However，at each stage of the life cycle the three factors are combined together in different ways so that there are different characteristics．For example，adolescent individuals tend to put more emphasis on joining in social activities and seeking for independence while married couples are more preoccupied with business and career．And at certain important moments the whole combination will be completely changed．For example，having children is a big event which can bring about great changes to an individual’s life．At this stage，his holiday taking can be totally different from the previous days as holidays have become better organized and less influenced by space limit．
你现在处于生命周期的哪一个周期？和以前相比，你关注的事物、旅游兴趣和旅游活动有什么变化？
The explanatory framework provided by the domestic life-cycle approach presents the information concerning the supply of facilities and the needs of particular population groups
（for example，the large numbers of elderly people have appeared in some Western countries by the end of the century）．This framework is very powerful，so the marketers often make use of it to segment the market．However，the life cycle does not take into account such groups as one-parent families，divorcees or other ethnic groups，so it is just a generalization．
表3.2 新西兰家庭旅游参与花销（按家庭生命周期统计，单位：新西兰元）
数据来源：David Weaver，Martin Oppermann．Tourism Management［M］．Sydney：John Wiley ＆ Sons Australia，Ltd，2000．
根据表3.2新西兰家庭旅游参与花销情况，你认为家庭生命周期的哪一阶段的消费行为对旅游企业，如饭店、旅行社、旅游景区更重要？为什么？
We can combine the
life-cycle framework
and
lifestyle variables
to analyze the tourism demand from many different angles．For example，as the level of holiday taking shows，in married middle age，paid holiday entitlement，income and mobility are at the highest level．Company such as Disney would make use of the concept to attract young children so as to keep the attraction for them when they become older．As birthrates in the developed world have decreased，it is important to create the hotel，activity and restaurant products which can make children fit for the social life and arouse their interests in certain types of holidays．
In this way demand can still be encouraged even when they are old．
举例说明家庭生命周期和生活方式有什么关联？迪斯尼以家庭为单位的促销对孩子未来的旅游活动有什么影响？
生活方式和家庭生命周期是相互关联的。随着年龄的增长，如步入中年，家庭的可自由支配收入增多，得到更好的薪酬和假期，买车、甚至游艇等，有更充分的机动性，因此旅游倾向性更大。
The buying decision process in tourism
After we learn the concepts of motivation and determinants of demand for tourism it is important for us to know how a tourist makes the decision for travel．Tourist behavior is quite different from other types of consumer behavior，for tourism is not a necessity，but a luxurious product which has characteristics of intangibility，inseparability，variability，perishability，and no transfer of the ownership．The buying decision process is influenced by energizers of demand such as motivation， effectors of demand such as a process of learning，attitudes and associations from promotional messages and information as well as determinants of demand such as lifestyle determinants and family life cycle variables．
需求原动力（energizers of demand）、需求影响力（effectors of demand）、需求决定因素（determinants of demand）以及角色与决策（roles and the decision-making）构成消费者决策过程的四个基本要素。
In general，the consumer’s buying process involves six distinct stages：need recognition，information search，evaluation of alternatives，purchase decision，actual purchase and post-purchase behavior，including consumption．However，the tourist’ buying process is not a simple linear progression．It usually involves several feedback loops that can result in a return to earlier stages．Figure 3.1 is an example of a destination buying process that accommodates such complexity．In this particular model，push and pull factors provide the consumer with the incentive or predisposition to travel，thereby shaping his or her need recognition．
Figure 3.1 Tourist’s decision process
分组讨论：与一般普通商品购买决策过程相比，旅游产品的购买决策过程有何不同？
The feedback exerts an important influence on subsequent behavior of each stage．To illustrate the process，we can imagine a potential tourist who is motivated to visit Singapore．After he searches for information and has a comparative study of other destination countries，such as Malaysia，Vietnam，Thailand and Japan，he chooses Thailand as his primary destination．As a result of this trip，he is impressed by the friendliness and hospitality of the people，and the low cost of food and accommodation，but the flood of Bangkok，and the theft of his purse during a break-in also disturbes him．Based on these experiences，his image of Thailand is refined．One year later，he decides to visit China，after considering a variety of alternatives．
旅游者消费行为比一般普通商品消费行为更复杂。旅游购买决策过程是游客为了实现购买行为所进行的一系列心理活动和购买活动。对多数人来讲，旅游是一种高消费，其旅游产品购买过程比较谨慎，购买旅游产品每一阶段的信息反馈对下阶段的购买行为会有影响，可能会产生二种情况：一种情况是旅游者继续购买产品；另一种情况是终止购买行为。
（1）_____ Determinants of demand are connected with both the individual and the supply environment．
（2）_____ The disposal income refers to the gross income an individual earns．
（3）_____ Those who have received a higher level of education are less willing to travel because they prefer to have leisure at home．
（4）_____ To measure an individual’s travel propensity，chronological age is more accurate than domestic age．
（5）_____ People in different life stages have different holiday demand and levels of travel propensity．
（6）_____ The lifecycle outlined in this chapter can be applied to both Chinese families and those families in the western countries．
（7）_____ Companies such as Disney and McDonald’s make use of the lifecycle concept to attract young children．
1．What are the main determinants of demand for travel？
____________________
2．In what way is paid-holiday entitlement connected with an individual’s travel decision？
____________________
3．What is domestic age？And how is it connected with an individual’s holiday demand？
____________________
4．What are the common factors shown by individuals at each stage of the life cycle？
____________________
5．What is the significance of studying lifestyle and life-cycle determinants of demand for tourism？
____________________