科目代码：610 科目名称：语言学与英美文学

Part One: Linguistics (75 points)

Ⅰ. Please define the following 5 terms with examples. (20 points, 4 fo each)

1. The design features of language

2. Textual function of language

3. Functional sentence perspective

4. Illocutionary force

5. The Relevance Theory

Ⅱ. Please discuss briefly the following 4 topics ( about 100 words on each topic). (20 points, 5 for each)

1. What is your understanding of micro-linguistics and macro-linguistics?

2. Why is competence and performance an important distinction in linguistics?

3. The London School

4. Functionalism in linguistics

Ⅲ. Please write a 200-word essay on each of the following 3 topics. (30 points, 10 for each)

1. Importance of stylistics to the study and appreciation of literature

2. The weak version of Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis

3. Error Analysis and its contribution to the teaching of a foreign language

Ⅳ. Please disambiguate each of the following 5 ambiguous sentences by means of treediagrams. (5 points, 1 for each)

1. There is nothing they have to say about.

2. There are twenty odd students in the class.

3. He came to the mosque I was attending with his brother.

4. We saw the Indian dance.

5. Teachers and students with certificates will have the access to the library

参考答案

Ⅰ.

1. The design features of language

考点提示： 本题考查考生对语言区别性特征的理解。

解题思路： 首先总体概括语言的区别性特征，然后再分别阐述并举例说明。

参考答案：

Language is human specific. All human languages have certain characteristics in common and linguists have identified these characteristics as the design features of language. These features can set human language apart from animal cry systems.

1) Arbitrariness: It indicates that there is no logical or intrinsic connection between a particular sound and its meaning.

E.g. flower English)，fleur French) (1 point)

2) Duality: It is a distinctive feature of language that refers to the fact that languages are organized in terms of two levels. At one level, language consists of sequences of segments or units which do not themselves carry meaning (such as the letters “g”, “d”). However, when these units are combined in certain sequences, they form larger units and carry meaning (such as dog). (1 point)

3) Productivity: It refers to man’s linguistic ability which enables him to produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences in our native language, including the sentences which were never heard before. For example, “He bought a book which was written by a man who worked in a middle school which was famous for its graduates …” (1 point)

4) Displacement: It is the ability of language to refer to contexts removed from the speaker s immediate situation. It enables people to talk about things remote either in space or time. E.g. the South Pole,Hitler, Confucius… (1 point)

2. Textual function of language

考点提示： 本题考查韩礼德三大语言的元功能理论之一：语篇功能。其他两个功能，即概念功能、人际功能也值得关注。

解题思路： 首先阐明语篇功能概念的提出者是韩礼德，再给出其定义，最后举例加以说明。

参考答案：

It is a key concept which was raised by Halliday. It refers to the existence of a mechanism in the language, which can be a verbal or any written discourse organization into a coherent and unified chapters and make a living language fragment different from a random permutation.（2 points）

E.g.: 1) John likes football. John likes basketball.

John likes football and basketball.

2) Henry kissed Mary in the park.

In the park, Henry kissed Mary. （2 points)

3. Functional sentence perspective

考点提示： 本题考查布拉格学派的理论之一：句子功能前景。该理论用来描述信息是如何分布在句子中。捷克语言学家将句子分为主位和述位两部分，区别于传统语法中的主语和谓语。主位指话语的出发点，是说话人和听话人都知道的东西；述位指话语的目标，表现对听话人来说意义重大的信息。

解题思路： 首先点明句子功能前景是布拉格学派提出的理论，再解释其具体的含义，最后举例阐明与传统句法分析句子的区别。

参考答案：

It is a type of linguistic analysis associated with the Prague School which describes how information is distributed in sentences. FSP deals particularly with the effect of the distribution of given information and new information in discourse. The given information (theme) refers to information that is not new to the reader. The rheme refers to information that is new. FSP differs from the traditional grammatical analysis of sentences because the distinction between subject predicate is not always the same as the theme-rheme contrast. (2 points)

For example, we can compare the following two sentences:

1) Eric stood in the front of the classroom.

Subject Predicate

Theme Rheme

2) In the front of the classroom stood Eric.

Predicate Subject

Theme Rheme (2 points)

4. Illocutionary force

考点提示： 本题考查语言使用中的行事行为理论，奥斯汀尝试从一种新的角度来解释讨论在什么意义上说话就是做事。进一步完善并修正了之前提出的施为句和叙事句理论。

解题思路： 首先总体概括行事行为理论，然后再解释行事语力的概念，最后举例加以说明。

参考答案：

Speech act theory was proposed by Austin and has been developed by Searle. Basically, they believe that language is not only used to inform or to describe things, it is often used to “do things”,to perform acts. Austin suggests three basic senses in which in saying something one is doing something and three kinds of acts are performed simultaneously: locutionary act, illocutionary act and perlocutionary act.

Illocutionary act or illocutionary force refers to the effect the utterance or written text has on the reader or listener. It is about the extra meaning of the utterance or written text produced on the basis of its literal meaning. (2 points)

E.g：“I am thirty”: The literal meaning is what the utterance says about the speaker’s physical state. The illocutionary force is the effect the speaker wants the utterance to have on the listener. It may be intended as a request for something to drink. (2 points)

5. The Relevance Theory

考点提示： 本题考查语言使用中的关联理论。

解题思路： 首先解释关联理论的定义，然后再举例说明。

参考答案：

The Relevance Theory is a proposal by Dan Sperber and Deirdre Wilson which is defined as: Every act of ostensive communication communicates the presumption of its own optional relevance. It seeks to explain the second method of communication: one that takes into account implicit inferences. It argues that the hearer / reader / audience will search for meaning in any given communication situation and having found meaning that fits their expectation of relevance, will stop processing（2 points)

For example: Mary: How many chairs do we have?

John: Three.

John did not say “three chairs”. What he said was just enough to understand his meaning.

This example illustrates an important point: speech indeterminates thought. What we say (write) is small compared to the thoughts which generate the communicative act as well as the thoughts the act typically provokes. (2 points)

Ⅱ.

1. 考点提示： 本题考查微观语言学和宏观语言学的概念。前者是语言学学科内部各个分支的联系，后者是语言学和其他领域之间的关系。

解题思路： 首先解释微观语言学各个分支的概念，然后再介绍宏观语言学的概念，如社会语言学、计算机语言学。

参考答案：

Microlinguistics mainly includes phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, and pragmatics, which are fields of enquiry purely about language itself

1) Phonetics: the scientific study of speech sounds

2) Phonology: the study of how speech sounds function in a language, as well as the ways speech sounds are organized;

3) Morphology: the scientific study of the formation of words

4) Syntax: the study of the combination of words into phrases, clauses and sentences;

5) Semantics: the study of meaning in all its formal aspects;

6) Pragmatics: the study of language in use. (2.5 points)

Macro linguistics is a field of study concerned with language in its broadest sense and including cultural and behavioral features associated with language.

1) Sociolinguistics studies the relations between language and society;

2) Psycholinguistics is the study of language and mind;

3) Computational linguistics is an approach to linguistics which employs mathematical techniques, often with the help of a computer;

4) Cognitive linguistics is an approach to the analysis of natural language that focuses on language as an instrument for organizing, processing, and conveying information. (2.5 points)

2. 考点提示： 本题考查乔姆斯基语言能力和语言运用的理论。

解题思路： 首先说明语言能力和语言运用的概念，然后再解释语言使用在实际应用中出现的误差，因此需要语言能力制定标准来规范语言使用。二者是语言学中的一对重要区分概念，而乔姆斯基更倾向于语言能力。

参考答案：

This is proposed by Chomsky in his formalist linguistic theories. A language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called linguistic competence. Performance refers to the actual use of language in concrete situations. Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view. (2 points)

According to Chomsky, a speaker has internalized a set of rules about his language, which enables him to produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences and recognize sentences that are ungrammatical and ambiguous. Despite his perfect knowledge of his own language, a speaker can still make mistakes in actual use, e.g. slips of the tongue, and unnecessary pauses. This imperfect performance is caused by social and phycological factors such as stress, anxiety, and embarrassment.Chomsky thinks that what linguists should study is the ideal speaker’s competence, not his performance,which is too haphazard to be studied. Although a speaker possesses an internalized set of rules and apples them in actual use, he can not tell exactly what these rules are. So the task of the linguistics is to discover and specify these rules.

Therefore, competence and performance is an important distinction in linguistics. (3 points)

3. 考点提示： 本题考查现代语言学流派中的伦敦学派。

解题思路： 首先介绍伦敦学派的研究内容以及代表人物，然后再说明其对语言学的贡献和研究特点。

参考答案：

The London School: The London school of linguistics is involved with the study of language on the descriptive level (synchrony), the distinguishing of structural (syntagmatics) and systemic(paradigmatics) concepts, and the social aspects of language. In the forefront is semantics. Malinowski,Firth and Halliday are all linguists from London School. (2 points)

The school’s primary contribution to linguistics has been the situational theory of meaning in semantics (the dependence of the meaning of a linguistic unit on its use in a standard context by a definite person; functional variations in speech are distinguised on the basis of typical contexts) and the prosodic analysis in phonology (the consideration of the phenomena accruing to a sound: the number and nature of syllables, the character of sound sequences, morpheme boundaries, stress, and so on). The distinctive function is considered to be the primary function of a phoneme.

The London School has a tradition of laying stress on the functions of language and attaching great importance to contexts of situation and the system aspect of language. It is these features that have made this school of thought known as systemic linguistics and functional linguistics. (3 points)

4. 考点提示： 本题考查语言学中的重要概念之一，功能主义。现代语言学家可分为两大阵营，即功能主义和形式主义。前者的主要代表学派是布拉格学派，后者的典型代表是乔姆斯基的转化生成语法。功能主义试图揭示语言是社会交往的一种手段，认为语言的使用决定语言的形式。

解题思路： 首先阐述功能主义的概念特点，然后再说明其代表学派和应用。

参考答案：

Generally speaking, schools of linguists can be divided into two major camps: one is functionalism,and the other is formalism. Functionalism, in linguistics, refers to the study of the forms of language in reference to their social function in communication. It tends to explain the forms of language by attributing a determining role of its function. This function is presumed to be communication. It hold that the use of language influences its form

Most contemporary linguistics in Europe is functional specially the Prague school of linguists prominent since the 1930s. The approach centers on how elements in various languages accomplish these functions, both grammatically and phonologically. Some linguists have applied the findings to work on stylistics and literary criticism.

Ⅲ.

1. 考点提示： 本题考查文体学对于学习和鉴赏文学的重要性。

参考答案：

Stylistics is the study of that variation in language which is dependent on the situation in which the language is used and also on the effect the writer or speaker wishes to create on the reader or hearer.Although stylistics sometimes includes investigations of spoken language, it usually refers to the study of written language, mainly including literary texts. Stylistics is concerned with the choices that are available to a writer and the reasons why particular forms and expressions are used rather than others. (10 points)

2 .考点提示： 本题考查社会语言学中萨皮尔“”–沃尔夫假说中的弱式理论模式，弱式之说是对于初始假说的修正，认为语言、文化和思维之间有相关性，但是思维方式的跨文化差异是相对的，不是绝对的。

解题思路： 首先解释萨皮尔–沃尔夫假说的初始理论，然后再说明逐渐衍变的“强式”和“弱式”两种理论模式，重点阐述“弱式”学说。

参考答案：

The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis is the theory that an individual’s thoughts and actions are determined by the language or languages that the individual speaks.The version of the of hypothesis states that all human thoughts and actions are bound by the restraints of language, and is generally less accepted than the weaker version, which says that language, only somewhat shapes our thinking and behavior. (4 points)

The strong version of the theory refers to the claim the original hypothesis suggests, emphasizing the decisive role of language as the shaper of our thinking patterns. The weak version of this hypothesis,however, is a modified type of its original theory, suggesting that there is a correlation between language, culture, and thought, but the cross cultural differences thus produced in our ways of thinking are relative, rather than categorical. (6 points)

3. 考点提示： 本题考查错误分析对于外语教学的贡献。

解题思路： 首先说明由于对比分析存在一定的缺陷，所以被错误分析代替。然后再阐述错误分析是如何进行的，最后再总结错误分析在外语教学中的应用。

参考答案：

Error analysis is the study and analysis of the errors made by second language learners. Since contrastive analysis cannot account for all errors, it was gradually replaced by error analysis. Its main claim is that many errors made by second language learners were caused by factors other than native language interference. (4 points)

In error analysis, a distinction is made between an error and a mistake. Error is the grammatically incorrect form. It arises from the learners’ lack of knowledge which represents a lack of competence.Mistake appears when the language is correct grammatically but improper in a communicational context. Mistakes often occur when learners fail to perform their competence.

Error analysis may be applied in the teaching of a foreign language in order to:

a. identify strategies which learners use in language learning;

b. try to identify the causes of learner errors;

c. obtain information on common difficulties in language learning, as an aid to teaching or in the preparation of teaching materials. (6 points)

Ⅳ.

1. 考点提示：

（1）There is nothing they have to say about.

nothing作have的宾语（他们没有什么要说的）

（2）There is nothing they have to say about.

nothing作say about的宾语（他们没有什么不得不说的）

参考答案：

（1）There is nothing they have to say about.

（2）There is nothing they have to say about.

2. 考点提示：

（1） There are twenty odd students in the class. Odd 修饰twenty

（2） There are twenty odd students in the class. Odd 修饰student

参考答案：

（1） There are twenty odd students in the class.

（2） There are twenty odd students in the class.

3. 考点提示：

He came to the mosque I was attending with his brother . (1) with his brother作he的伴随状语

(2) with his brother作I的伴随状语

参考答案：

(1) He came to the mosque I was attending with his brother. (2) He came to the mosque I was attending with his brother.

4. 考点提示：

（1）We saw the Indian dance. Saw sth.

（2）We saw the Indian dance. Saw sb. do sth.

参考答案：

（1）We saw the Indian dance.

（2）We saw the Indian dance.

5. 考点提示：

Teachers and students with certificate will have the access to the library.

（1）with certificates修饰students

（2）with certificates修饰 teachers and students

参考答案：

（1）Teachers and students with certificates will have the access to the library （2）Teachers and students with certificates will have the access to the library 0bhuQ/ooY1Z/+pe5zMwlGkB+TCsGYl8h2uB9dnASyoddR+tkVRw0kGma4uhLSC3m