1.7 Recognizing Coherence

FOCUS

阅读下面的句子并将其排序。哪个是第一句？在每个句子旁边标出正确的顺序：1，2或3。

___The trunk’s inner core consists of vertically oriented cells that are closely packed together in parallel rows.

___Millions upon millions of such cells form the heartwood—the nonliving central pillar on which the living tree hoists itself skyward.

___The most distinguishing characteristic of a mature tree is its self–supporting woody spine,or trunk.

从上到下，最有逻辑性的排序是2，3，1。现在阅读下面这段话中的句子：

现在读下面这个句子，它可以加在上面的段落中。

All trees share certain growth characteristics that distinguish them from other members of the plant kingdom.

这个句子最适合哪一个位置呢？选择能够添加这个句子的方块[■]。

这个句子最适合第一个[■]的位置。加上这个句子后，重新阅读这段话。注意观察每个句子是如何引起下文，从而让段落流畅的。

段落中的句子都语义通顺，合乎逻辑。这种逻辑顺序使段落具有连贯性（coherence）。

STUDY

1. Coherence

连贯（coherence）就是一篇文章各部分之间的整体性和条理性。如果一篇文章是连贯的（coherent），那么在段落内部的句子之间及句子内部所表达的意思都是有逻辑性和条理性的。文章内部的各个段落之间的联系也是有条理的。连贯的文章意思清晰。因为各个部分结构紧凑、逻辑清晰，文章就很容易理解。

托福考试中的连贯性问题考查考生把一句话插入原文中正确位置的能力。其出题形式如下：

在托福考试中，小方框[■]代表文章中可选的位置。在点击[■]的位置时，这个句子就会出现在相应的位置上。考生可以尝试将这个句子放在不同的位置上，直到认为加入这句话后的文章富有逻辑连贯性。

对一篇文章结构和目的的理解，以及对代词和过渡词的掌握，都可以帮助考生确定插入句子的位置。如果加入句子后会破坏原本相邻句子间的逻辑性，那么考生也可以据此确定哪些位置不合适。

2. Purpose Clues

文章的连贯性与作者的写作目的相关。如果作者的写作目的清晰而且富有逻辑性，那么这篇文章就是连贯的。看下面这个例子：

Two reasons for government regulation of industry stand out. First, economists have traditionally stressed the importance o fcontaining market power. A second reason, deriving from public–choice theories, is that the regulators are captured by the regulated.

Two reasons，first和 second redason都在提示作者的意图是要列出政府管理的原因。句子顺序是连贯的。在这些句子之间插入一句话很可能会打乱它们之间的逻辑性。

看另外一个例子：

Good managers adjust plans when necessary. Flexible plans allow for several contingencies. Contingencies are events that might affect what you plan to do, but rarely are out of your control. For example, rain is a contingency that might affect the success of an outdoor event,so plans for an outdoor event should include a “rain plan.”

作者的写作目的是来定义contingency这个术语，并且举出一个例子来进行例证。句子顺序是连贯的。在任何句子之间添加句子就会打断观点之间的逻辑性：引出一个术语，进行定义，并且举例进行论证。

3. Pronoun Clues

代词和它的指称词同样是句子连贯性的线索。代词（pronoun）就是用来替代或者指代一个名词的单词。指称词（referent）即代词所指的那个名词。通常这个名词指代对象在代词之前提到过，但有时候也出现在代词之后。指代对象可能与代词出现在同一个句子当中，也可能出现在不同的句子当中。

请看以下在托福连贯题中会出现的代词：

在下列例子中，代词及其指代对象以斜体形式出现。代词和其指代对象的运用是句子连贯的线索。在下面任何句子之间插入句子都可能会打断代词和其指代对象之间的联系。

Every society has a favorite imagined figure that is seen in the surface markings of the full moon. In Asia and Europe, itis commonly a hare, while North Americans see the “man in the moon.”

Because she was essentially a realist, Willa Cather made human nature the subject of her novels. Many of her characters were based on real people that she knew and loved.

The brain of a computer is its central processing unit. In the case of a microcomputer, this is a chip called the microprocessor, whichis connected to the other units by groups of wires.

Driving while intoxicated is illegal. However, this is not the only reason to avoid drinking and driving.

Like the gray and fox squirrels, the Eastern chipmunk often feeds on acorns and hickory nuts. Essentially a ground species, this pert rodent does not hesitate to climb large oak trees when the acorns are ripe.

Three common herbs are effective remedies for a sore throat: angelica, sage, and vervain. All are available in health food stores.

Only two elements are liquids at normal temperatures. One is mercury and the other is bromine.

The bassoon and the oboe are members of the woodwind family. The former is a low–pitched double–reed instrument that can produce high and delicate legato sounds, as well as low and loud staccato notes.

4. Transition Clues

某些单词或短语被称为过渡词（transitions），它们是连贯性的重要线索，因为它们既衔接句意，又控制句子的顺序。过渡词标志句子及段落之间主要观点间的联系。一些常见的过渡词如下：

过渡词显示连续句子之间的关系。看这个例子：

Akira Kurosawa’s masterful works burst on the international film scene in the 1950s with the sound of fireworks and epic battles. In contrast, the quiet dignity and unobtrusive techniques of Satyajit Ray’s films also placed him among the world’s great directors.

In contrast就是一个过渡词，它展示了两者之间的对比并决定了句序。In contrast表明第二句中的信息应出现在第一句的信息之后。

看另外一个例子：

At least one central quality of music—rhythmic organization—can exist apart from the ability of people to hear it. Music’s rhythms can be translated into a visual series of colored forms or performed by a dance troupe. Hence, certain aspects of the musical experience are accessible even to deaf individuals who cannot appreciate its auditory qualities.

Hence是一个引出结果的过渡词。Hdence体现出dcertain aspects of the musical experience are accessible even to deaf individuals这句话是之前的句子中提到的关于音乐的韵律组织的内容的一个结果。

5. Answer Choices

在解答有关连贯性的题目时，如果添加句子后出现以下情况，那么该选项就有可能是错误的：

打乱了相邻句子间意思的逻辑性；

打乱了代词与其指代对象之间的逻辑关系；或

影响了过渡词的正确使用。

6. Sample Questions

这个句子最符合第三个方块。在这个句子中，Both是一个代词线索，它指代的是之前句子中提到的phenomenology和existentialism。另外，这句话还提到了an effect on other ways of thinking，这一内容在接下来的句子中通过神学和人文主义思想家的例子进行了拓展。把句子插入正确位置后，完整的段落如下：

The philosophy of existentialism is based on the belief that individual human beings face a meaningless, absurd, and science–oriented world.■Individuals must therefore find or construct meaning for their existence and answer their own questions about what is true.■The philosophy of phenomenology is the study of human experience and the interpretation of experience. Phenomenology is a close cousin to existentialism. Both echo many of the themes of earlier philosophies and in turn had an effect on other ways of thinking. Existentialism and phenomenology influenced theological and humanist thinkers, such as Martin Buber and Abraham Maslow. The former focused on the philosophical dialogues of the I–Thou and teacher–student relationships.■The latter theorized about the hierarchy of human needs and the ultimate need for self–actualization.

在其他任何位置添加这个句子都会打断代词与其指称词之间的联系，同样也会打断文章内容的逻辑性。

该句子最符合第四个方块，在被添加的句子当中，Consequently是一个引出结果的过渡词。它体现出the typical bowing of the legs seen in the disease called rickets是之前句子提到的缺少钙和维生素D的孩子们unable to properly mineralize the bone matrix这一问题的结果。把句子添加到正确的位置之后，完整的段落如下：

Vitamin D increases the efficiency of the intestine to absorb calcium and phosphorus from food in order to mineralize the bones in the body. It also increases the activity of bone cells that make and lay down bone matrix. ■The bone matrix is like the frame of a building. If the body has adequate amounts of calcium and phosphorus, these minerals are incorporated into the bone matrix, and the result is a strong, healthy skeleton. ■Our skin can make vitamin D when it is exposed to sunlight. ■However, most people living in the Northern Hemisphere do not get enough sunlight in the winter to make adequate amounts of the vitamin. Young children who do not get enough calcium and vitamin D are unable to properly mineralize the bone matrix. Consequently, when gravity pushes on the skeleton,it causes the typical bowing of the legs seen in the disease called rickets. In adults, a deficiency in both calcium and vitamin D will increase the risk of bone fracture. Vitamin D is necessary to increase the body’s ability to absorb calcium.

在其他任何地方添加句子都会影响到过渡词的正确使用，还会打断文章内容的逻辑性。

PRACTICE

Exercise 1.7.A

Read the passages and choose the best answer to each question.

1.Look at the four squares, A , B , C , and D , which indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage. Where would the sentence best fit?

Most of them like to talk, especially in front of a group.

Kindergartners are quite skillful with language. A Providing a “sharing time” gives children a natural opportunity for talking. However, many will need help in becoming good listeners. B Some sort of rotation scheme is usually necessary to divide talking opportunities between the talkative and silent extremes. C Teachers can provide activities or experinces for less confident children to talk about, such as a field trip, a book, or a film. D

2.Look at the four squares, A , B , C , and D , which indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage. Where would the sentence best fit?

However, the ground surface is spongy and wet to the touch.

Bogs are a distinctive type of wetland.A They appear relatively dry, with only small amounts of shallow water visible. B The surface material is largely sphagnum moss or other organic matter rather than mineral soil. C Bogs are usually characterized by evergreen trees and shrubs and are underlain by deep peat deposits. D Bogs will develop in former glacial lakes by the gradual accumulation of organic matter falling from beneath a floating mat of vegetation advancing out over the water.

3.Look at the four squares, A , B , C , and D , which indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage. Where would the sentence best fit?

The narrower leaves of trees like willows and mimosa provide a dappled shade, which may be more beneficial to lawns and garden plants.

While all living things need sunlight, too much of it can be oppressive, even damaging. A Any overheated dog or cat can appreciate the relief provided by a mature shade tree on a sunny day. B The densest foliage, and so the densest shade, is found under the broad leaves of deciduous trees like oaks and maples. C By cooling the surrounding air, the shade from trees reduces the demand for air conditioning in nearby homes. D This translates into reduced emissions of carbon dioxide from oil–or coal–fired electrical generators.

4.Look at the four squares, A , B , C , and D , which indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage. Where would the sentence best fit?

This is due to the beating of the double reed through which the air travels as it leaves the player’s mouth.

The highest of the standard orchestral instruments, the flute is unlike the other woodwinds because it is held across the player’s mouth. A The air inside is set in vibration by the action of the airstream against the edge of the hole. B The flute has no reed, so its tone is pure and creamy. C In contrast, the oboe has a rasping, “sawtooth” configuration to its sound when played loud. D However, the oboe can produce a quiet and gentle sound when called for, and it can even approximate the human voice.

5.Look at the four squares, A , B , C , and D , which indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage. Where would the sentence best fit?

It is the only method available for obtaining a variety of colors in bamboo.

For centuries, bamboo has provided building materials for Eastern cultures. Now it is becoming more popular and available in the West, particularly as a substitute for expensive hardwood flooring. A As a flooring material, natural honey–colored bamboo is more stable than carbonized bamboo. B Carbonizing is a technique of steaming and pressurizing the bamboo to introduce carbon fibers that darken the original material. C However, it lowers the hardness factor, making the darker bamboo more susceptible to damage. D

6.Look at the four squares, A , B , C , and D , which indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage. Where would the sentence best fit?

No one can be made better off without making someone else worse off.

An economy is efficient if there is no way of reorganizing production and distribution to improve everyone’s satisfaction. Economists call such a state allocative efficiency. A When people come to a market with goods they have produced, they trade their goods for those of others. B Every completed trade raises the satisfaction of both sides. C When all of the beneficial trades have been completed, no one can find another trade to improve his situation. D Under such conditions, the economy has attained allocative efficiency.

7.Look at the four squares, A , B , C , and D , which indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage. Where would the sentence best fit?

Researchers found that high–pitched tones made people think of bright colors, while low tones brought dark colors to mind.

For people with a condition called synesthesia, sound is directly linked to the sense of sight, and they experience sounds by seeing them as colors. A However, different sounds sometimes remind everyone of different colors. B In one study, students were asked to relate colors to different tones of music. C White, yellow, and pink were associated with tones in the 4,000–Hz range; blue and green were associated with tones in the 1,000–Hz range; and brown, gray, and black were associated with tones in the 200–Hz range. D

8.Look at the four squares, A , B , C , and D , which indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage. Where would the sentence best fit?

This irritation is caused by viruses or bacteria, exposure to tobacco smoke, or air pollution.

Bronchitis is an inflammation of the bronchial tubes in the lungs. A It often appears after a cold or an upper respiratory infection that does not heal completely. It also may accompany childhood infections such as measles, whooping cough, and typhoid fever. B The inflamed bronchial tubes secrete a sticky mucus called sputum. It is difficult for the tiny hairs on the bronchi to clear out this sputum. C The cough that comes with bronchitis is the body’s attempt to eliminate it. D Other symptoms include discomfort or tightness in the chest, low fever, sore throat, and sometimes wheezing. Severe cases of bronchitis may lead to pneumonia.

9.Look at the four squares, A , B , C , and D , which indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage. Where would the sentence best fit?

Courses included Far Eastern, Spanish, and Native American dances as well as basic ballet.

Among the modern dance innovators of the early twentieth century was Ruth St.Denis, whose dances were lush and graceful, tinged with exoticism and mysticism. A St.Denis was particularly expert in the manipulation of draperies and veils so that the moving fabrics seemed like magical extensions of her own body. B St. Denis’s 1914 marriage to dancer–choreographer Ted Shawn resulted in a wedding of names, Denishawn, which first became a school and then a dance company. C Denishawn drew its inspiration and derived its curriculum from a variety of ethnic sources. D The touring Denishawn company might offer on a single program a Hindu dance, a rhythmic interpretation of concert music, a romantic duet, a hula, and a demonstration of the latest ballroom craze.

10.Look at the four squares, A , B , C , and D , which indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage. Where would the sentence best fit?

Both biological and chemical oceanographers are trying to make ocean life and industrial progress compatible so marine ecosystems will not be endangered.

A Within the field of oceanography, the major areas stressed are physical, biological, chemical, geological, engineering, and technological. However, each of these areas is interdependent of the others. Both physical oceanographers and ocean engineers are involved in harnessing the energies of the ocean to fill the demand for electrical power. B Even if oceanographers have an area of major interest, they are consistently forced to take a more interdisciplinary view of their work because the various sciences overlap. C Oceanographers of different backgrounds depend on each other to further their own research. D A conference of marine scientists might include discussions of plate tectonics,effects of offshore mining on fisheries, effects of climate change on marine life, technology for deep–sea exploration, and other related topics.

Exercise 1.7.B

Read the passages and choose the best answer to each question.

QUESTIONS 1–3

1 The 2,000–year–old complex of mounds occupying thirteen acres on the banks of the Scioto River in southwestern Ohio is one of the most important sites of the Hopewell Indian culture. Their mound construction was especially intensive in this area. It offers evidence that this society flourished in the Ohio Valley for five hundred years.

2 The 23 mounds are spaciously placed but with no overall pattern. Archaeologists have determined that the complex—called Mound City—was apparently both a village and a burial site. Numerous artifacts have been found in excavations of the burial mounds. They include shell beads, bear and shark teeth, pottery, and ear spools of copper and silver. A number of pipes found in one mound—probably belonging to a chief or priest—are remarkable for their exquisite workmanship and stylized realism in the likenesses of animals and birds: wildcat, beaver, great blue heron, and raven.

1. The word flourished in paragraph 1 is closest in meaning to

A suffered

B fished

C lived

D competed

2. The word likenesses in paragraph 2 is closest in meaning to

A forms

B bones

C behavior

D habitats

3. Look at the four squares, A , B , C , and D , which indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage. Where would the sentence best fit?

The quantity and type of burial objects in particular mounds indicates the status and occupation of the deceased.

The 23 mounds are spaciously placed but with no overall pattern. Archaeologists have determined that the complex—called Mound City—was apparently both a village and a burial site. A Numerous artifacts have been found in excavations of the burial mounds. B They include shell beads, bear and shark teeth, pottery, and ear spools of copper and silver. C A number of pipes found in one mound—probably belonging to a chief or priest—are remarkable for their exquisite workmanship and stylized realism in the likenesses of animals and birds: wildcat, beaver, great blue heron, and raven. D

QUESTIONS 4–6

1 Although some fish appear capable of swimming at extremely high speeds, most fish, such as trout and minnows, can actually swim only about ten body lengths per second. Translated into kilometers per hour, it means that a 30–centimeter trout can swim only about 10.4 kilometers per hour. Generally speaking, the larger the fish the faster it can swim.

2 We can understand how fish swim by studying the motion of a very flexible fish such as an eel. The movement is serpentine , with undulations moving backward along the body by alternate contraction of the muscles on either side of the eel’s body. While the undulations move backward, the bending of the body pushes sideways against the water, producing a reactive force that is directed forward at an angle. The movement has two components: thrust and lateral force. Thrust is used to propel the fish forward, and lateral force tends to make the fish’s head deviate from the course in the same direction as the tail. This side–to–side head movement is very obvious in a swimming eel, but fish with large, rigid heads have enough surface resistance to minimize the lateral movement.

Glossary:

serpentine: like a snake

undulation: wavelike motion

4. It can be inferred from paragraph 1 that a 60–centimeter fish can swim

A at extremely high speeds

B faster than a 30–centimeter fish

C only about 10.4 kilometers per hour

D fast enough to catch an eel

5. Which sentence below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage?

A The fish uses thrust when moving forward,and lateral force when moving backward or sideways.

B Both force and lateral thrust are needed for the fish to maintain its intended course.

C Thrust can be seen in the fish’s head, while lateral force is seen in both its head and its tail.

D Thrust pushes the fish forward, and lateral force pushes both its head and its tail to the same side.

6. Look at the four squares, A , B , C , and D , which indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage. Where would the sentence best fit?

The front end of the body bends less than the back end, so each undulation increases in size as it travels along the body.

We can understand how fish swim by studying the motion of a very flexible fish such as an eel. A The movement is serpentine, with undulations moving backward along the body by alternate contraction of the muscles on either side of the eel’s body. B While the undulations move backward, the bending of the body pushes sideways against the water, producing a reactive force that is directed forward at an angle. C The movement has two components: thrust and lateral force. D Thrust is used to propel the fish forward, and lateral force tends to make the fish’s head deviate from the course in the same direction as the tail. This side–to–side head movement is very obvious in a swimming eel, but fish with large, rigid heads have enough surface resistance to minimize the lateral movement.

QUESTIONS 7–10

1 Both the Greeks and the Romans minted coins. The Romans called the place where coins were made and stored by the Latin word moneta, the ancestor of the English word money. Even after coins were developed, however, the world was still a long way away from our current system of money. Each city made its own coins, with no common way of exchanging one type for another. Gradually, traders worked out different rates of exchange.

2 Another complication lay in the fact that for thousands of years, most people did not use money for important purchases. Although the wealthier classes used money for major transactions, ordinary people continued to barter for most things in their daily lives. For example, workers would be paid in food, clothing, and shelter, rather than in money. Farm ers would grow food and make items for them selves, trading the tiny surplus for whatever they could not make or grow.

3 Paper money had a lot of advantages: it was lighter and easier to carry. It was also a lot cheaper to make. The development of paper money meant that people had grasped the difference between money as a symbol and money as something that was worth only the actual cost of the paper and ink in making a bill. The first known use of paper money was in China, around the year 1300. The first use of paper money in Europe was in Sweden in the 1600s, a time of extensive international trade and exploration. Because paper money made trade easier and more efficient, its use quickly caught on throughout the world.

7. Which sentence below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage?

A Because the majority of people did not have much money, they had to use other methods of exchange.

B Rich people used money for important purchases, but common people traded goods and services directly.

C The daily life of the rich and the poor differed mainly in the amount of money that was available to them.

D The wealthier classes had more control over how they used their money than did members of the lower classes

8. The word grasped in paragraph 3 is closest in meaning to

A reduced

B challenged

C understood

D hidden

9. Look at the four squares, A , B , C , and D , which indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage. Where would the sentence best fit?

However, this was a long, slow process that often developed differently, depending on the individual trader.

Both the Greeks and the Romans minted coins. The Romans called the place where coins were made and stored by the Latin word moneta, the ancestor of the English word money. A Even after coins were developed, however, the world was still a long way away from our current system of money. B Each city made its own coins, with no common way of exchanging one type for another. C Gradually, traders worked out different rates of exchange. D

10. Look at the four squares, A , B , C , and D , which indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage. Where would the sentence best fit?

As trade became an ever more important part of the world economy, people began to use paper money as well as coins.

A Paper money had a lot of advantages: it was lighter and easier to carry. B It was also a lot cheaper to make. C The development of paper money meant that people had grasped the difference between money as a symbol and money as something that was worth only the actual cost of the paper and ink in making a bill. The first known use of paper money was in China, around the year 1300. D The first use of paper money in Europe was in Sweden in the 1600s, a time of extensive international trade and exploration. Because paper money made trade easier and more efficient, its use quickly caught on throughout the world.

Answers to Exercises 1.7.A through 1.7.B are on page 644.

EXTENSION

1. 课后，在报纸、杂志或大学教材中找一篇含有一至三个段落的文章，复印一份并带到课堂上。与一个同学合作，读这篇文章并标出过渡词、代词和其他有助于加强文章连贯性的重要单词或短语。

2. 课后，在杂志或大学教材中选出一个含有四到六句话的段落。把段落中的每句话都单独记下来，然后把顺序打乱。课上，把这些被打乱顺序的句子写在黑板上或者放到幻灯片上。全班同学共同来把这些句子组成一个连贯完整的段落。哪些词或短语是标志段落连贯性的线索？什么使句子之间具有逻辑性？是否还有其他的组合方法？改变句子的顺序是否会改变整段的意思？

3. 课后，在杂志或大学教材中选出一个含有四到六句话的段落。从这个段落中抽出一句话，然后把其余的部分写在幻灯片上。把抽出的这句话写在一个独立的方框中，并将其置于段落的上方或下方。课上，两个人或几个人一组，判断方框中的这句话应该放在段落的哪个位置。然后把你的答案与其他同学的答案以及原文进行比较。 sEtorKtFvcDjX7uXZP3Gr1QM3sugmZrUymEyO/kIdhVkcrIF11kYdiGkw2fULnXV