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1.6 Recognizing Paraphrases
FOCUS
阅读下面的文章并回答问题：
题目要求考生找出最符合句子意思的选项：
These studies are hard evidence that the natural world is already responding dramatically to climate change, even though the change has just begun.
看下面句子每一部分的意思：
These studies are hard evidence...
...the natural world is already responding dramatically to climate change...
...even though the change has just begun.
正确答案是Climate change is recent, but there is strong proof that species are reacting。比较下面两个句子的意思：
These studies are hard evidence... ...there is strong proof...
...the natural world is already responding
dramatically to climate change... ...species are reacting.
...even though the change has just begun. Climate change is recent...
正确答案是原始句子的释义。它用不同的单词表达了同样的观点。
STUDY
释义（paraphrase）是对一个句子的重新表述，所表达的意思与原句相同但表达方式不同。释义会使用不同的句子结构或单词，通常会使用同义词（synonyms），也就是和原句单词意思相同或接近的其他单词。
考生可以通过观察原句中的核心信息来判断句子的释义。核心信息（essential information）就是句子中最重要的信息，所包含的内容是理解作者所要传达的信息和写作目的的基础。
托福考试中的释义题形式如下：
Which sentence below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.
释义的句子会有不同的句子结构，或者它也会把从句的顺序打乱。例如：
释义题一般会用到同义词或同义短语来表达与原句相同的意思。接下来是一些例子，其中的同义词已用斜体（italics）标示。
标出来的句子中的代词或其他指示性单词可能指代前面句子中的内容。正确的释义可能会用所指代的内容来代替代词。下面是几个例子，其中的代词和指代内容都用斜体标出。
在释义题中，错误选项通常错在它们：
和原句意思不同；
忽略了原句中非常重要的信息或观点；或
加入了原句没有的信息或观点。
本题要求考生确认文中标识句的释义。正确答案是Refugees are udnable dto produce food, and poor people cannot afford food。看原句的信息和正确选项是如何进行释义的：
其他三个选项为什么不正确呢？Food cannot bed grown in some regions because the soil is too poor和People cannot survive solely on root crops, which are poor in nutrients都和原句意思不同。Some people can relocate to find food, but poor people have nowhere to go这个选项中增加了poor people have nowhere to go，这一信息并没有在原句中出现。
正确答案是Edarth can support fewer people if the quality of life is considered and more people if avoiding starvation is most important。看原句的信息和正确选项是如何进行释义的：
其他三个选项没有准确地表达原句中的核心信息。
PRACTICE
Read the passages and choose the best answer to each question.
QUESTION 1
In a typical business conference, associates meet to discuss policy or to solve problems.The average participants do not do much specific preparing; their background and thinking usually formulate their contribution. But it is best if all participants know in advance the purpose of the conference. Some general preparation may be in order, and participants may want to take into the conference materials or data that might be useful if a matter comes up .
1. Which sentence below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage?
A Although participants cannot be expected to do too much, they should do some general preparation.
B The conference leader should prepare all of the materials and data that will be used in the conference.
C There is a general order to most conferences, with participants contributing ideas and information.
D As general preparation, participants can bring materials or data that might be a part of the discussion.
QUESTION 2
Because they absorb heat from the environment rather than generate much of their own,reptiles are said to be ectotherms, a term identifying their major source of body heat as being external. Ectotherms heat directly with solar energy by basking in the sun, rather than through the metabolic breakdown of food, as in mammals and birds. This means that a reptile can survive on less than 10 percent of the calories required by a mammal of equivalent size .
2. Which sentence below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage?
A Because a reptile heats with solar energy, it requires less than 10 percent of the calories that a mammal of the same size needs.
B A reptile obtains only 10 percent of its calories from the metabolic breakdown of food; it obtains the rest by basking in the sun.
C Some reptiles and mammals are equal in size, but they require vastly different quantities of calories for survival.
D Reptiles need to spend only 10 percent of their time eating because they do not need as many calories as mammals of equal size.
QUESTION 3
Architecture is concerned with the large–scale manipulation of elements in the dimensions of length, width, and height. These dimensions may apply to a solid, such as the Egyptian pyramids, or to hollow interior spaces, ranging in size and complexity from a domestic room to a vast cathedral. They may also apply to the spaces around and between buildings. Moreover, every building has a physical context in relation to other buildings. Sometimes the designer disregards the context on the assumption that surrounding structures will later be replaced . However, it is more often posterity that destroys the once appropriate original context.
3. Which sentence below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage?
A Some architects do not like other buildings to be too close to the building they are designing.
B Most buildings eventually have to be replaced, so the physical context is not very important.
C Architects often believe that nearby structures will not always be there, so they ignore them.
D Designers should ignore the assumptions of people who plan to destroy the original context.
QUESTION 4
The first great collector of Canadian folk traditions was Marius Barbeau, who oversaw the preservation of thousands of texts in what is now the National Museum of Canada. Fearing that these traditions would disappear unless gathered and catalogued, Barbeau preserved the folklore and folk songs of cultures ranging from rural Quebec to the Tsimshian Indians of British Columbia. These folkways—songs, dialects, legends, tall tales,riddles, and children’s rhymes—were all part of Canada’s traditional rural experience. They provided evidence of the everyday life of the people that was far richer than that in most other historical texts .
4. Which sentence below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage?
A There is a lot of information in historical texts, but most of it does not deal with real life.
B Canada’s folkways give us a much better description of daily life than most histories do.
C The texts collected by Barbeau reveal that some rural Canadians were richer than others.
D The Canadian people provided a lot of materials that illustrate their traditional values.
QUESTION 5
Ruminants—cattle, bison, sheep, goats, deer, antelopes, and giraffes—have a large four–chambered stomach that enables them to digest fibrous plant matter. When a ruminant first swallows a mouthful of grass or leaves, the food enters the stomach’s first chamber, the rumen, where bacteria start to break down the cellulose–rich matter and form it into small balls of cud. The ruminant periodically returns the cud to its mouth where it is chewed at length to crush the fibers, making them more accessible to further bacterial action . The ruminant then reswallows the cud, which passes through the other three chambers of the stomach for further digestion.
5. Which sentence below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage?
A Ruminants eat continuously, spending long periods eating grass and chewing their cud in order to access the nutrients.
B The bacterial action begins when the ruminant puts the cud in its mouth and starts the long process of chewing.
C The ruminant’s strong teeth must crush the plant fibers in the cud in order to neutralize the cud’s harmful bacteria.
D The cud is sent back to the ruminant’s mouth and chewed extensively so that the fibers can be digested more easily.
QUESTION 6
Cities differ from towns in the size, density, and diversity of their population. The city offers a wider variety of goods and services, as well as more extensive employment and cultural opportunities. City life is characterized by impersonal and formal social relationships,greater privacy, and more lifestyle choices—a way of life referred to as urbanism. The urban spirit is sophisticated and dynamic, stimulating the mind through contrasts and encouraging tolerance of differences. However, urbanism is not restricted to city dwellers; it can be considered a trait of all modern societies at a high level of technological development . The urban spirit spreads beyond the city via the mass media: television, movies, music, and the Internet.
6. Which sentence below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage?
A City dwellers do not let urbanism restrict their ability to develop new technology.
B Urbanism characterizes all highly developed societies, not just people who live in cities.
C All modern societies have a sophisticated level of technology;this is the primary goal of urbanism.
D Living in the city limits one’s knowledge to only the most advanced technology.
QUESTIONS 7–8
1 Alligators have no natural predators except humans. In fact, humans drove alligators to near extinction in many of their marsh and swamp habitats in North America . Hunters once killed large numbers of these animals for their meat and soft belly skin, which was used to make shoes, belts, and wallets. Between 1950 and 1960, hunters wiped out 90 percent of the alligators in Louisiana and greatly reduced the alligator population in the Florida Everglades.
2 In 1967 the federal government placed the American alligator on the endangered species list. In the next decade, protected by hunters and averaging about 40 eggs per nest,the alligator made a strong comeback. It was reclassified from endangered to threatened in Florida, Louisiana, and Texas, where the vast majority of the animals live. As a threatened species, it is still protected from excessive harvesting by hunters; however, limited hunting is allowed in some areas to keep the population from growing too large .
7. Which sentence below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in paragraph 1?
A It is a fact that humans forced alligators to live in North America’s marshes and swamps.
B Many alligators were killed when people built roads and drove cars through their habitats.
C People almost destroyed the native alligator population in many North American environments.
D In North America, humans and alligators rarely choose to live together in the same area.
8. Which sentence below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in paragraph 2?
A Alligators are still protected, but hunters are allowed to kill a certain number to control their population in some places.
B In order to prevent alligators from growing too large, hunters can harvest adult alligators that exceed a specified size.
C Hunting is restricted to areas where alligators are no longer a threatened species and therefore do not need protection.
D Alligators are more threatened than ever by excessive hunting, and hunters should not be allowed to destroy all of them.
QUESTIONS 9–10
1 Current archaeological theory holds that the first humans in the Americas were bands of advanced Stone Age people who crossed over from what is now Siberia in Asia sometime between 12 and 30 thousand years ago . Some scientists think that these early humans crossed what is now the Bering Sea on a land bridge, a stretch of glacial ice connecting Asia and North America. Others speculate that they may have crossed that 55–mile–wide channel by boat.
2 These early humans probably migrated southward along an ice–free corridor. After several thousand years, perhaps at a pace of only ten miles every year, the migrants spread over this new land from Alaska to the tip of South America, a trail over ten thousand miles long. In South America, where the glaciers from the ice age melted first,the migrants took strong root in the fertile soil and warming climate of Patagonia . As the ice receded farther north, civilization in what is now Central America and Mexico began to take shape and flourish.
9. Which sentence below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in paragraph 1?
A Theories vary widely over how the first humans arrived in the Americas, but most state that it occurred around 30 thousand years ago.
B The best current theory states that between 12 and 30 thousand early humans crossed over from Siberia to North America.
C Human beings originated in Siberia in Asia and later formed into bands that migrated to the Americas during the Stone Age.
D Archaeologists believe that groups of Stone Age humans first came to the Americas from Asia about 12 to 30 thousand years ago.
10. Which sentence below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in paragraph 2?
A When the glaciers in South America melted, the climate became warmer in Patagonia, helping the people grow strong.
B The favorable conditions in Patagonia attracted migrants from other parts of South America, where there were still glaciers.
C The ice age glaciers melted earliest in South America, where the migrants settled in the warm, fertile region of Patagonia.
D The migrants in Patagonia in South America survived on the root crops that grew well in the fertile soil and warm climate.
Read the passages and choose the best answer to each question.
QUESTIONS 1–3
1 A subculture is a cultural group within the larger society that provides social support to people who differ from the majority in terms of status, race, ethnic background, religion,or other factors. Whenever these differences lead to exclusion or discrimination, subcultures develop as a shield to protect members from the negative attitudes of others . Subcultures unify the group and provide it with values, norms, and a history.
2 Some subcultures do not experience discrimination yet differ from the mainstream enough to generate a “we” feeling among members and a sense of separateness. Examples include military officers, college students, information technology specialists, social workers,jazz musicians, or any subgroup with its own special language and customs. Subcultures usually have values that are variations on those of the dominant culture. These variations are close enough for the subgroup to remain under the societal umbrella but different enough to reflect the unique experience of subgroup members . In North America today, teenagers are a distinct subculture with a special way of talking and dressing so that insiders can recognize one another while keeping outsiders out.
1. Which sentence below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in paragraph 1?
A People are excluded from subcultures for various reasons, but especially if they have a negative attitude.
B When some people discriminate against others, it is the responsibility of the majority culture to do something.
C When people are different from others,they may experience negative effects, including discrimination.
D Subcultures form to protect people who differ from the majority when these people face discrimination.
2. All of the following are given as characteristics of subcultures EXCEPT
A a desire to join the dominant culture
B experiences outside those of the mainstream
C special customs and way of talking
D a “we” feeling among members
3. Which sentence below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in paragraph 2?
A The different experiences of subgroups cause their members to seek protection in the values and customs of their own group.
B Every society is like a large umbrella that covers people from a wide variety of backgrounds and cultures, protecting everyone equally.
C A subculture’s values show its separateness yet resemble the majority’s values enough to keep the subgroup within the larger society.
D Each group member has experiences that differ from those of all other members and are completely outside those of the mainstream.
QUESTIONS 4–6
1 The cerebral cortex of the human brain is divided into two hemispheres that are linked by a thick band of fibers called the corpus callosum. Each hemisphere has four discrete lobes, and researchers have identified a number of functional areas within each lobe . The left hemisphere has areas for controlling speech, language, and calculation, while the right hemisphere controls creative ability and spatial perception. This centering of functions in specific areas of the brain is known as lateralization.
2 Much of our knowledge about brain lateralization comes from studies of “split–brain” patients, people with a damaged corpus callosum. In one experiment, a subject holding a key in his left hand, with both eyes open, was able to name it as a key. However, when the subject’s eyes were covered, he could use the key to open a lock, but was unable to name it as a key. The center for speech is in the left hemisphere, but sensory information from the left hand crosses over and enters the right side of the brain. Without the corpus callosum to function as a switchboard between the two sides of the brain, the subject’s knowledge of the size, texture, and function of the key could not be transferred from the right to the left hemisphere . The link between sensory input and spoken response was disconnected.
4. Which sentence below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in paragraph 1?
A Each half of the brain consists of four types of tissues that are identified by their size and location.
B The brain’s two hemispheres each have four separate parts, and each part controls several functions.
C There are a number of functional centers in the brain, and these can be divided into four main groups.
D Research has shown that the brain controls four basic functions, each with a number of variations.
5. According to the passage, what is one effect of a damaged corpus callosum?
A Functions from one side of the brain are transferred to the other side.
B People with their eyes open cannot see an object held in the left hand.
C The connection between sensory input and spoken response is broken.
D Creative ability and spatial perception are greatly diminished.
6. Which sentence below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in paragraph 2?
A Information about the key could not travel from one side of the brain to the other because the corpus callosum did not provide the link.
B Some people are born without a corpus callosum, so they cannot exchange knowledge between the two hemispheres of the brain.
C Both sides of the brain control knowledge of familiar objects, and the corpus callosum functions as a key to that knowledge.
D The corpus callosum acts like a computer keyboard in the way that it takes information from the hands and enters it into the brain.
QUESTIONS 7–10
1 Organic compost (partially decomposed organic matter) requires four basic elements: carbon, nitrogen, air, and water. The carbon comes from dead organic matter, such as dried leaves, straw, and wood chips. The nitrogen comes from fresh or green materials, such as vegetative kitchen waste, untreated grass clippings, and animal manure. Fungi, bacteria, and other microorganisms use the carbon for energy and the nitrogen to grow and reproduce. The microorganisms secrete enzymes that break down the cells of the dead vegetation and animal matter . These enzymes are the glue that cements the soil particles into larger, coarser grains. Coarse soil crumbles easily, which aerates the soil and allows it to absorb moisture efficiently. This partially digested mixture is compost.
2 Compost is a stage of decay in which most of the organic matter has been broken down,but it may still be possible to identify individual parts such as leaves and twigs. The final phase of decay is called humus—a dark, sticky, nutrient–rich substance in which the original materials can no longer be distinguished. Although the terms “compost” and “humus” are often used interchangeably, they are not synonymous .
7. Which sentence below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in paragraph 1?
A Enzymes from the microorganisms break apart when they come into contact with organic matter.
B Nonliving plant and animal matter is digested when microorganisms produce certain enzymes.
C Vegetation and animal matter contain enzymes that hinder the growth of dangerous microorganisms.
D Microorganisms invade the cells of plants and animals, eventually causing the death of the host.
8. The word cements in paragraph 1 is closest in meaning to
A lifts
B freezes
C sorts
D combines
9. It can be inferred from paragraph 1 that organic compost
A is less expensive than other types of compost
B relies on the digestive processes of microorganisms
C is based on the belief that everything in nature changes
D requires about a year before it can be used in the soil
10. Which sentence below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in paragraph 2?
A Compost and humus are different substances, but people sometimes confuse the two words.
B It is often possible to change compost into humus, but you cannot change humus into compost.
C “Compost” used to be a synonym for “humus,” but the meaning of both words has changed over time.
D Some people think that compost eventually becomes humus, but actually the reverse is true.
Answers to Exercises 1.6.A through 1.6.B are on page 643.
EXTENSION
1. 在课外，从杂志或大学教材中挑选一篇包含一至三个段落的文章。在课堂上与一个同学合作，试着找出每一篇文章内的名词和动词，然后在字典、同义词手册或辞典中尽可能多地找出这些名词或动词的同义词。人名和其他专有名词没有同义词。另外，要清楚并不是每一个同义词都可以用在所选文章的语境中，一些同义词要比其他的词更合适。如果你不确定哪个同义词适合你所读的文章，问一下老师。
2. 在课外，选一篇不多于100字的短文。用不同的方式和单词复述每个句子以对整篇文章进行释义。你也可以把多个句子中的内容综合成一句话。为了进一步开展这项练习，把原文和改写后的文章带到班上，并与你的同学交换原文。然后，改写你从同学那里得到的原文，同时你的同学也需改写你的原文。写完后，比较原文和你们改写的文章。改写后的文章是否包含原文的核心信息？
3. 在课外，选一篇不多于100字的短文，然后复印并发给班里的同学每人一份，或者用幻灯片进行展示。从中选出一句，用不同的词和句式将其改写。在课堂上，把改写后的句子写在黑板或是幻灯片上。在你的同学把原文和改写后的这句话读完之后，让他们找出原文的哪句话被进行了改写。改写后的句子是否包含了原句的核心信息？