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1.3 Understanding Vocabulary in Context
FOCUS
阅读下面的文章并回答问题：
注意文章中的cartography一词。文章中有没有其他单词可以帮助你理解这个词的意思？可能的线索有map,drawn, history of和printed map。这些线索可以提示你正确的答案是mapmaking（制图法）。
现在，回答另一个问题：
理解depicted一词的线索有：
…the first printed map to show California as an island.
…California was still being depicted as an island in atlases….
在文章中，depicted的意思是shown（被展示）或者drawn（被描绘）。因此，正确答案是drawn。
STUDY
上下文（context）就是单词或短语出现的背景——句子和段落。单词或短语在上下文中的意思是指它们在其出现的句子和段落中的意思。一个英语单词可能有很多不同的意思，它确切的意思通常取决于上下文。
在托福考试中，根据上下文猜测词义的题目形式如下：
The word/phrase _____ in the passage is closest in meaning to _____.
The word/phrase _____ in the passage means _____.
What is_____?
In stating that _____ in paragraph _____, the author means that _____.
为了理解一个单词在语境中的意思，可以利用各种上下文线索：文章结构、标点符号，以及同一句或同一段中其他单词的意思。在现实生活的阅读中，也许文章并没有上下文线索辅助阅读，但有时可以利用对文章的整体理解以及常识来猜测生词的意思。
结构线索（structural clues）是上下文线索的一种。结构线索包括指明句子中各成分间关系的单词、短语或句子结构。这些线索可以帮助考生通过了解单词之间的关系来猜测生词的意思。
Example
A supernova is a massive star that undergoes a gravitational collapse, then a gigantic explosion,blasting away the outer layers into space.
Sometimes one goal or another has to come first; deciding which goals are most important is setting priorities .
解析：
句中supernova的意思由系动词is后面的信息给出。Supernova就是经过引力坍缩（gravitational collapse）和爆炸（explosion）的巨大星球。
句子中priorities的意思由系动词is前面的信息给出。Priorities就是最重要的目标。
Example
The inclination or tilt of the earth’s axis with respect to the sun determines the seasons.
A skyscraper , orbuilding more than twenty stories high, is built on a foundation of concrete supported by piles driven into the ground.
解析：
句中inclination的意思由连词or后面的信息给出。Inclination意为“倾斜”（tilt）。
句中skyscraper的意思由连词or后面的信息给出。Skyscraper指高度在20层以上的建筑。
Example
Thermal power stations are designed to pass as much energy as possible from the fuel to the turbines , machines whose blades are turned by the movement of the steam.
解析：
句中turbines的意思由同位语即逗号后面的名词词组给出。Turbines指利用蒸汽运动使叶片（刀片）转动的机器。
Example
The sun crosses the equator twice a year at the equinoxes , when day and night are nearly equal in length.
Prescribed fire, ignited by forest rangers under controlled conditions to restore balance in the forest, is a safe way to mimic natural fire conditions.
The radiating surface of the sun is called the photosphere, and just above it is the chromosphere , which is visible to the naked eye only during total solar eclipses, appearing then to be a pinkish–violet layer.
解析：
句中equinoxes的意思由when引导的定语从句给出。Equinoxes就是昼夜平分点。
句中prescribed的意思由ignited引导的形容词性短语给出。Prescribed描述的是一些可控制的、为了恢复平衡而做的事情。
句中chromosphere的意思由which引导的定语从句和appearing引导的形容词性短语给出。Chromosphere指只有在日全食时才能用肉眼看到的粉紫色光层。
Example
Because of their similar teeth, seals and walruses are believed to have evolved from the same ancestral groups as the weasels, badgers,and other mustelids .
If someone is said to have “a chip on his shoulder,” he is angry, pugnacious , sullen, and looking for trouble.
解析：
一组或一系列信息在某种程度上是相关的。句中mustelids的意思由与其同为一组的其他单词给出：weasels, badgers and other。Mustelids就是像鼬（weasel）和獾（badger）一样的动物。
句中pugnacious的意思由与其同为一组的其他单词和短语给出：angry, sullen and looking for trouble。Pugnacious指“好斗的”。
for example for instance like such as
Example
Several personnel managers complain about the lag of business colleges in eliminating obsolete skills. For instance, shorthand is still taught in many secretarial programs although it is rarely used.
Intangible assets , such as a company’s recognized name and its goodwill, are neither physical nor financial in nature.
解析：
句中obsolete的意思由for instance后面的信息给出。速记（shorthand）是古老技巧（obsolete skill）的一个例子。Obsolete用来描述不再有用的东西。
句中intangible assets的意思由such as后面的信息给出。一个公司的名字和信誉都是intangible assets的例证。在系动词are后面有更多信息。Intangible assets指的是非物质的、非财政的无形资产。
alternatively different instead rather
but however nevertheless unlike
conversely in contrast on the contrary whereas
despite in spite of on the other hand while
Example
Twilight rays are nearly parallel, butbecause of the observer’s perspective, they appear to diverge .
Songbirds are early risers and remain active throughout the day, except during the warmest hours in summer. Owls, on the other hand, are primarily nocturnal .
Unlike sun pillars, which are caused by reflection of light, arcs and haloes are caused by refraction of light through ice crystals.
解析：
句中diverge的意思由but和parallel给出。由此可知diverge（相交）指与parallel（平行）不同的情况。
句中nocturnal的意思由on the other hand和active throughout the day给出。由此可知nocturnal和“白天活跃的”不同。Nocturnal指“夜晚活跃的”。
句中refraction的意思由unlike和reflection给出。由此可知refraction（折射）和reflection（反射）不同。
标点线索（punctuation clues）是另一种上下文线索，可以帮助考生理解生词的意思。标点符号通常表明一个单词确认、重命名或定义了另一个单词。
Example
Crepuscular rays —alternating bright and dark rays in the sky—appear to radiate from the sun.
Virtually every community college now offers contract education : short–term programs, ranging from a few hours to several days, for employees of specific companies, which pay a share of the cost.
Folate supplementation before and during pregnancy can prevent certain defects of the brain and spine, such as anacephaly (absence of a major part of the brain).
解析：
句中crepuscular rays的意思由两个破折号之间中的信息给出。Crepuscular rays就是天空中交替出现的明暗光线。
句中contract education的意思由冒号后的信息给出。Contract education就是对某公司里的员工进行的短期培训。
句中anacephaly的意思由括号中的信息给出。Anacephaly指大脑主要部分的缺失。
关键词（key words）在句子或段落中可以成为上下文线索。结合关键词的意思以及对句子和段落的理解可以帮助考生理解生词的意思。
Example
Accessories add interest to a room. They can accent or highlight an area and give a room beauty and personality.
Light output, measured in lumens , depends on the amount of electricity used by a bulb.
解析：
Accessories的意思通过句中其他单词给出：interest，accent，highlight，beauty和personality。由这些关键词可以知道accessories指装饰屋子的东西。
Lumens的意思通过句中其他单词给出：light，output，measured和electricity。由这些关键词可以知道lumen指一套测量光通量的装置。
词的构成（word parts）可以帮助考生理解生词的意思。很多英文单词都含有古英语、希腊语和拉丁语词根。如果知道生词某一部分的意思，就可以对整个词的意思有大致了解，尤其是在结合上下文的情况下。
单词由三部分构成：前缀、词根和后缀。前缀（prefixes）是单词前面的部分，它影响单词的意思。词根（roots）是单词的构成基础，拥有相同词根的一组单词意思相关。后缀（suffixes）是词的结尾部分，影响单词的词性，比如把单词转化为名词或动词。
记住下列常用前缀和词根。你能添加更多的例子吗？
正确答案是brightness（明亮）。句中的上下文线索是light-filled和shining。而且，luminosity的词根-lum-也有“光亮”的意思。
正确答案是movement（活动，移动）。句中的上下文线索是quickness和energies of both nature and the city。而且，mobility的词根-mob-具有“移动”的意思。
正确答案是easily results in mistakes（容易导致错误）。文中的一些上下文线索是chance blots, on the other hand和one slip of the brush can turn a flowering meadow into a mud puddl。
PRACTICE
Read the passages and choose the best answer to each question.
QUESTION 1
Although the sensory receptors and brain pathways for taste and smell are independent,the two senses do interact. A great deal of what we consider taste is actually smell. If the sense of smell is obstructed , as by a head cold, the perception of taste is sharply reduced.
1. The word obstructed in the passage is closest in meaning to
A involved
B increased
C developed
D blocked
QUESTION 2
A water molecule consists of two hydrogen atoms attached to a single, larger oxygen atom. The angle between the two hydrogen atoms is 120 degrees—the same angle as the angles of a hexagon—which accounts for the characteristic six–sided structure of ice crystals.
2. The phrase accounts for in the passage means
A explains
B decreases
C connects
D summarizes
QUESTION 3
Reports on an organization’s projects may fill several major functions at the same time. A report can be used to educate and gain support from key people and groups, to facilitate and inform decision–making about current and future projects, and to provide documentation for the organization’s records. The employees who are responsible for preparing the report must have a clear understanding of how the report will be used before they compile it.
3. The word compile in the passage is closest in meaning to
A agree with
B put together
C ask about
D look forward to
QUESTION 4
The evolutionary origins of music are wrapped in mystery. There is ample concrete evidence of musical instruments dating back to the Stone Age and much presumptive evidence about the role of music in organizing work groups, hunting parties, and religious rites. Many scholars suspect that musical and linguistic expression had common origins but then split off from one another several hundred thousand years ago.
4. The phrase split off in the passage is closest in meaning to
A separated
B borrowed
C evolved
D learned
QUESTIONS 5–6
Modern tourism began with the transition from a rural to an industrial society, the rise of the automobile, and the expansion of road and highway systems. Before the Second World War, travel for pleasure was limited to the wealthy, but since then, improved standards of living and the availability of transportation have allowed more people to indulge . In the 1960s, improvements in aircraft technology and the development of commercial jet airlines enabled fast international travel. The tourism industry exploded . Today, airports in nearly every country can accommodate jumbo jets full of tourists seeking exotic destinations.
5. The word indulge in the passage is closest in meaning to
A participate
B migrate
C survive
D change
6. The word exploded in the passage is closest in meaning to
A was competitive
B expanded rapidly
C was expensive
D became dangerous
QUESTIONS 7–8
At the college level, the best preparation for management is a liberal arts education. Individuals who will guide the future of their companies must broaden and deepen their understanding of the world. This means covering the whole range of the liberal arts, from science to literature to mathematics to history. Today’s executives must have some grasp of economic realities and the political process, as well as some comprehension of the basic framework within which scientific and technological changes take place. They must gain an understanding of human nature, including its negative aspects, such as the sources of human conflict and the pitfalls of power.
7. The word grasp in the passage is closest in meaning to
A understanding
B communication
C criticism
D prediction
8. The word pitfalls in the passage is closest in meaning to
A benefits
B stages
C causes
D hazards
QUESTIONS 9–10
It is a popular notion that autumn leaves are tinted by freezing temperatures. In truth,the foliage is dulled, not colored, by frost. Red leaves such as maples are brightest when sunny days are followed by cool—but not freezing—nights. Under such conditions, sun–made sugars are trapped in the leaves, where they form the red pigment anthocyanin.Leaves that appear yellow in autumn are no less yellow in spring and summer. However,in spring and summer the yellow pigments—carotenoid and xanthophyll—are masked by the green pigment chlorophyll, which breaks down with the diminishing sunlight of fall.
9. The word foliage in the passage means
A season of year
B type of chemical
C mass of leaves
D species of tree
10. The word masked in the passage is closest in meaning to
A created
B colored
C captured
D concealed
Read the passages and choose the best answer to each question.
QUESTIONS 1–2
1 Earthshine—the faint light that allows us to see the dark side of the moon when the moon is a thin crescent—is sunlight reflected from the earth to the moon, then back again. Earthshine is variable because the earth’s reflectivity changes as large cloud masses come and go. The moon with its earthshine acts as a crude weather satellite by reporting, in a very simple way, the general state of terrestrial cloudiness. Because the amount of light reflected from the earth depends on the amount of cloud cover, the brightness of the dark side of the moon varies.
2 As the phase of the moon progresses beyond a thin crescent, earthshine fades in a day or two. This is because the amount of sunlit earth available to make earthshine diminishes as the moon orbits the earth. Also, there is the increasing glare of the moon’s growing crescent,which causes a loss of visibility by irradiation.
1. The word crude in paragraph 1 is closest in meaning to
A false
B stormy
C random
D simple
2. The word glare in paragraph 2 is closest in meaning to
A cloud cover
B bright light
C wave frequency
D dark sphere
QUESTIONS 3–4
1 Coolhas withstood the fleeting nature of most slang. As a modifier, as a noun, and as a verb, coolhas been around a long time. Shakespeare used coolas a verb, and the word later evolved into other parts of speech. It has been used as an adjective since 1728 to describe large sums of money, as in “worth a cool ten million.”
2 Cool, meaning “excellent” or “first–rate,” was popularized in jazz circles, and jazz musicians and jazz lovers still refer to great works as “cool.” As long as Miles Davis’s classic 1957 album, Birth of the Cool, remains one of the best–selling jazz recordings of all time, coolwill stay cool—it will carry the same weight as it did more than 50 years ago. One reason for the endurance of coolis that its meaning continues to evolve. While it meant “wow!” two decades ago, today it is more often used to mean, “That’s OK with me,” as in “I’m cool with that.”
3. The word fleeting in paragraph 1 is closest in meaning to
A temporary
B youthful
C emotional
D popular
4. The phrase carry the same weight in paragraph 2 means
A refer to great music
B refer to a large sum of money
C have the same importance
D have the same meaning
QUESTIONS 5–6
1 The dominant feature on the map of Canada is the two–million–square–mile mass of ancient rock known as the Canadian Shield. The shield sweeps in a great arc around Hudson Bay from far northwest to far northeast, touching the Great Lakes on the south and extending eastward deep into Quebec. The rock of the shield consists mainly of granite and gneiss formed nearly four billion years ago. During the ice ages, huge glaciers advanced and retreated over the region, scouring the surface, removing most of the existing soil, and hollowing out countless lakes.
2 Clay soils exist in a few areas on the shield’s southern edge, but attempts to bring them into agricultural use have been largely unsuccessful. However, the region’s mineral wealth has sustained both temporary and permanent settlements during the past century, and more recently, some of its vast potential for hydroelectric power has been tapped.
5. The word scouring in paragraph 1 is closest in meaning to
A freezing
B uplifting
C improving
D scraping
6. The word sustained in paragraph 2 is closest in meaning to
A prevented
B protected
C supported
D ruined
QUESTIONS 7–10
1 A growing number of companies are finding that small–group discussions allow them to develop healthier ways to think about work. People at all levels of the corporate structure are starting groups that meet weekly or monthly to talk over ways to make workplaces more ethical and just.
2 Several factors must be present for small–group discussions to be successful. First, it is important to put together the right group. Groups work best when they consist of people who have similar duties, responsibilities, and missions. This does not mean, however, that everyone in the group must think in lockstep .
3 All participants should agree on the group’s purpose. Finding the right subject matter is essential. There are several ways to fuel the discussion: by using the company’s mission statement, by finding readings on work and ethics by experts in the topic, or by analyzing specific workplace incidents that have affected the company or others like it.
4 Finally, the dynamics of the group should be balanced, and the discussion leader must not be allowed to overwhelm the conversation or the agenda. Groups work best when the same person is not always in charge. It is better to rotate the leadership for each meeting and let that leader choose the material for discussion.
7. The phrase talk over in paragraph 1 is closest in meaning to
A demand
B overlook
C explore
D remove
8. The phrase in lockstep in paragraph 2 is closest in meaning to
A alike
B critically
C aloud
D quickly
9. The word fuel in paragraph 3 is closest in meaning to
A categorize
B stimulate
C sequence
D conclude
10. The word overwhelm in paragraph 4 is closest in meaning to
A dominate
B plan
C summarize
D contradict
Read the passages and choose the best answer to each question.
QUESTIONS 1–4
1 There is growing evidence that urbanization has a sharp impact on climate, causing changes that can wreak havoc on precipitation patterns that supply the precious resource of water. The heavy amounts of heat and pollution rising from cities both delay and stimulate the fall of precipitation, depriving some areas of rain while drenching others.
2 Cities are on average one to ten degrees warmer than surrounding undeveloped areas. Cities also produce large amounts of pollutants called aerosols, gaseous suspensions of dust particles or byproducts from the burning of fossil fuels. Both heat and aerosols change the dynamics of clouds. When hoisted up in the sky, the microscopic particles act as multiple surfaces on which the moisture in clouds can condense as tiny droplets. This can prevent or delay the formation of larger raindrops that fall more easily from the sky, or it can cause the rain to fall in another location.
3 In California, pollution blows eastward and causes a precipitation shortage of around one trillion gallons a year across the Sierra Nevada mountain range. By contrast, in very humid cities, such as Houston, heat and pollutants seem to invigorate summer storm activity by allowing clouds to build higher and fuller before releasing torrential rains.
1. The phrase wreak havoc on in paragraph 1 means
A disrupt
B omit
C strengthen
D separate
2. The word drenching in paragraph 1 is closest in meaning to
A almost missing
B severely damaging
C thoroughly wetting
D entirely avoiding
3. The word hoisted in paragraph 2 is closest in meaning to
A lifted
B grouped
C returned
D pointed
4. The word torrential in paragraph 3 is closest in meaning to
A unexpected
B warm
C infrequent
D heavy
QUESTIONS 5–10
1 So much sentimentality is attached to the rose in popular culture that it is difficult to separate the original mythological and folkloric beliefs from the emotional excess that surrounds the flower. Yet if we look into the beliefs, we find that the rose is much more than the mere symbol of romantic love invoked by every minor poet and painter.
2 One of the rose’s most common associations in folklore is with death. The Romans often decked the tombs of the dead with roses; in fact, Roman wills frequently specified that roses were to be planted on the grave. To this day, in Switzerland, cemeteries are known as rose gardens. The Saxons equated the rose with life, and they believed that when a child died, the figure of death could be seen plucking a rose outside the house.
3 The rose has a long association with female beauty. Shakespeare mentions the rose more frequently than any other flower, often using it as a token of all that is lovely and good. For the Arabs, on the other hand, the rose was a symbol not of feminine but of masculine beauty.
4 Later the rose became a sign of secrecy and silence. The expression sub rosa , “under the rose,” is traced to a Roman belief. During the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, it was common practice to carve or paint roses on the ceilings of council chambers to emphasize the intention of secrecy.
5. The word sentimentality in paragraph 1 is closest in meaning to
A confusion
B beauty
C feeling
D popularity
6. The word invoked in paragraph 1 is closest in meaning to
A avoided
B called on
C criticized
D taken away
7. The word decked in paragraph 2 is closest in meaning to
A painted
B separated
C decorated
D disguised
8. The word plucking in paragraph 2 is closest in meaning to
A growing
B smelling
C wearing
D picking
9. The word token in paragraph 3 is closest in meaning to
A symbol
B proof
C justification
D contradiction
10. The phrase sub rosa in paragraph 4 means
A romantically
B intentionally
C secretly
D commonly
Read the passages and choose the best answer to each question.
QUESTIONS 1–5
1 In the nineteenth century, Americans were becoming more familiar with European homes and luxuries. When “period” furniture became popular, American furniture factories attempted to duplicate various styles of French and English furniture of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. At the same time, designers in England were attempting a return to handicrafts as a means of self–expression. William Morris and other leaders of the English Arts and Crafts movement created home furnishings that celebrated the individuality of the designer.
2 In the United States, a similar movement soon followed. The American Arts and Crafts—or Craftsman—movement was based not only on individualism but also on a return to simplicity and practicality. Like the Arts and Crafts furniture in England, the Craftsman furniture in America represented a revolt from mass–produced furniture. Makers of Craftsman furniture sought inspiration in human necessity, basing their furniture on a respect for the sturdy and primitive forms that were meant for usefulness alone.
3 Gustav Stickley, pioneer of the Craftsman movement, believed that average working people wanted furniture that was comfortable to live with and would also be a good investment of money. Stickley felt that any American style in furniture would have to possess the essential qualities of durability, comfort, and convenience. Craftsman furniture was plain and unornamented—made to look as if the common man could build it himself in his own workshop. Locally obtained hardwoods and simple, straight lines were the hallmarks of its construction. The severity of the style departed greatly from the ornate and pretentious factory–made “period” furniture that had dominated in homes up till then.
1. What is “period” furniture?
A Reproductions of earlier styles
B Furniture that is made by hand
C The last pieces made in any style
D Nineteenth–century designer furniture
2. The word revolt in paragraph 2 is closest in meaning to
A style
B benefit
C break
D inspiration
3. The word primitive in paragraph 2 is closest in meaning to
A special
B beautiful
C innovative
D simple
4. The word hallmarks in paragraph 3 is closest in meaning to
A features
B limits
C commands
D plans
5. The word ornate in paragraph 3 is closest in meaning to
A ugly
B complex
C practical
D expensive
QUESTIONS 6–10
1 Zora Neale Hurston devoted five years to the collection of rural black folklore in Haiti, the West Indies, and the American South. Her ear for the rhythms of speech and her daring in seeking initi ation into many voodoo cults resulted in ethnographic studies such as Mules and Men, which conveyed the vitality , movement, and color of rural black culture.
2 Hurston continued her fieldwork in the Caribbean but eventually followed her most cherished calling , that of fiction writer. Their Eyes Were Watching God(1937), a novel about a black woman finding happiness in simple farm life, is now her most famous book,although for thirty years after publication, it was largely unknown, unread, and dismissed by the male literary establishment . In this novel, Hurston gives us a heroic female character, Janie Crawford, who portrays freedom, autonomy , and self–realization, while also being a romantic figure attached to a man. This novel reveals an African American writer struggling with the problem of the hero as woman and the difficulties of giving a woman character such courage and power in 1937.
3 From the beginning of her career, Hurston was criticized for not writing fiction in the protest tradition. Her conservative views on race relations put her out of touch with the temper of the times. She argued that integration would undermine the strength and values of African American culture. Hurston died in poverty and obscurity in 1960, and it was only afterward that later generations of black and white Americans were to rediscover and revere her celebrations of black culture.
6. The word vitality in paragraph 1 is closest in meaning to
A politics
B energy
C disadvantages
D humor
7. The word calling in paragraph 2 is closest in meaning to
A profession
B example
C character
D description
8. The word autonomy in paragraph 2 is closest in meaning to
A independence
B selfishness
C evil
D romance
9. The phrase out of touch in paragraph 3 means that
A other writers were not interested in race relations
B Hurston ignored the topic of race relations
C Hurston’s opinions differed from those of most other people
D there was no contact between Hurston and other writers
10. The word revere in paragraph 3 is closest in meaning to
A imitate
B be amused by
C disagree with
D honor
Answers to Exercises 1.3.A through 1.3.D are on pages 636–638.
EXTENSION
1. 与老师和同学一起讨论扩大词汇量的方法。回答下面的问题：
a. 掌握新词汇的最佳方法是什么？
b. 你过去是怎么做的？
c. 现在哪种或哪些方法最适合你？
（参考答案：听讲座；看电视和电影；找一个讲英语的室友；每天记下三个新单词；背单词表；将单词翻译成母语；读英文报纸；阅读各种英文材料；阅读自己专业的相关教材。）
在黑板上列出各种学习新单词的方法，挑出三种最适合自己的并付诸实践！
2. 每周学习第73～74页表格中的五个前缀和五个词根。在课外阅读的文章中寻找包含这些前缀和词根的单词，并把它们带到课堂上与同学共享。
3. 在课外阅读杂志、报纸或大学课本。找出你学到新单词的一个段落，标出新单词，并复印四份带到课堂上。
在课堂上，四人为一组进行活动。在你的小组中，给每个组员一份你复印的资料，并阅读其他组员提供的段落。以小组为单位，找出可以帮助理解每个标注单词意思的上下文线索和单词的结构。这个单词是名词、动词、形容词，还是其他词性？对每个标注的单词下一个简短的定义。然后在英—英字典中查询这些单词。你们小组给出的定义与字典中的定义是否接近？
4. 在课外阅读材料中找三个句子，确保每个句子都包含一个你不认识的单词。把句子带到课堂中，选出一句写在黑板上，但省略那个生词，并把那个位置设成空格。让同学们思考哪个单词符合上下文。有多少单词可能是正确的呢？比较他们的答案和那个被省略的单词。
5. 开始做词汇笔记以帮助你备考托福。在笔记本上记下你在阅读过程中学到的新单词，包括那些在上下文中用到的单词。分类整理笔记本中的单词。（可选类别：不同学科领域的词汇，如科学、商业和艺术；你研究领域的重要词汇；具有相同前缀和词根的单词；难记忆的单词；发音比较有趣的单词。）