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第四节 词汇概述

一、词汇的级别

就词的正式性而言,英语词汇可以分为正式词汇(formal words)、一般词汇(informal/common words)和口语词汇(colloquial words)三大类。正式词汇通常用于正式文体或场合中,如正式信函、文件、研究报告、宣传手册以及公开演讲。下面这封感谢信就使用了大量正式词汇。

Thank you very much for giving me an opportunity to discuss my application and credentials with you.I enjoyed meeting you and other senior executive officers and I trust that my experience in market analysis will prove useful in helping your company expand your market share among the competitors.I look forward to hearing from you.

一般词汇通常用于日常谈话和非正式文本如私人信件、日记和故事中。试比较下列词汇的不同:

口语词汇主要用于非正式或熟悉的人之间的谈话。请看下面的例句:

I've got all the stuff for them at ATM South,Bob,and I wouldn't be surprised if I get another call from them soon.They must be nutshell if they pass me up.Oh,I need this job badly.Wish me luck!

这段话中“I've”“nutshell”(疯子)“pass up”(错过)都属于口头用语。

当然,词汇的正式和非正式性不是绝对的,而是相对的。重要的是作者必须意识到词汇的不同类别,在写作过程中要根据写作背景或风格选取恰当的词。如果把不同类别的词汇混用在一起,就会使文章显得不伦不类。例如:

On hearing that his father had kicked the bucket,we wrote him a letter of condolence.

听说他父亲翘辫子了(kicked the bucket),我们写了一封吊唁信。

显然“kicked the bucket”(翘辫子,死亡)此处运用不当,不符合吊唁信的写作风格。

二、概括性词汇与具体词汇

在英语中,有些词在意义上比其他词更概括或更具体。例如,professionals(职业人士)不如scientists,teachers,doctors,lawyers,journalists等词的意思具体。但是与physicists或chemists相比较而言,scientists又是一个概括性词汇。概括性词汇(general words)与具体词汇(concrete words)在写作中各有用途。当我们描述或者解释一件事,或者提供细节时,我们应尽可能尝试使用具体词汇,因为这些词提供的信息更丰富,表达力更强;而当我们进行总结或概括时,概括性词汇更有用。试比较:

a good man a(an)kind/honest/just/generous/sympathetic/warm-hearted/selfless/brave/honorable man

good food tasty/delicious/nourishing/rich/fresh/appetizing/abundant food

显而易见,右边的词汇比左边的good一词更具体,表达的意思更丰富。它们使读者似乎能看到、听到或者感觉到作者描述的人物或事物。

在写作中,概括性描述适合用于主题句或总结,而具体描述能提供更多细节,使文章生动、形象,令人印象深刻。例如:

概括性描述:It is often windy and dusty here in spring.

具体描述:In spring there is often a very strong northwest wind.It carries so much fine dust with it that sometimes the sun becomes obscure.There is no escape from the fine dust;it gets into your eyes,your ears,your nostrils,and your hair.It goes through the cracks of closed windows and covers your desks and chairs.

三、本义与含义

本义(denotation)指一个词直接的、字面的意义。例如“home”的本义是“你居住的地方”(place where you live)。含义(connotation)则指一个词隐含的或暗示的意义,是通过联想对那个词所产生的情感反应。因此,home还意味着温暖、安全与呵护。因此,对英语写作而言,了解词汇的内涵非常重要。

首先,有些词汇意义相近,内涵却不同。例如,country、nation、state和land都可以译成“国家”,但它们的内涵却相差甚远。country强调领土,nation强调人民,state侧重政治组织,而land则饱含某种情感。

其次,有些英语词汇就本义而言可以在汉语里找到对应词,但它们的象征含义却有所不同。例如,“宣传”一词在汉语里是中性词,而propaganda在英语中却是贬义词;phoenix(凤凰)在西方象征“复活”“再生”,而在汉语里则表示“祥瑞”;“桃”在汉语里象征“长寿”,而peach在英语里则指代“特别讨人喜爱的人或物”。

最后,有些英语词汇具有相同的本义,却有着不同的褒扬、中性或贬低的含义。试比较以下一组词,它们的本义相同,内涵却大相径庭。

stout:suggesting robust health结实的,略胖的

portly:suggesting fatness of an older man肥胖的(常形容男性)

plump:suggesting a pleasant fullness of figure丰满的(常形容女性)

rotund:suggesting a spherical shape矮而胖的

chubby:suggesting the bouncy roundness of a cherub or a well-fed baby胖乎乎的

fat:suggesting the neutral,general uncomplimentary connotation(人或动物)胖的,肥的

corpulent:suggesting an unbecoming bulkiness发福的

obese:implying an unhealthy excess of fat肥胖的,过胖的

通过比较我们可以看出,虽然这些词本义相同,但是各自的褒贬色彩却不一样。在写作中不能随意使用这类词汇,一定要根据文章所要表达的意思或情感选择恰当的词汇。

四、同义词辨别

英语中同义词(synonyms)特别丰富,例如,laugh、smile、chuckle、和giggle的意思相近,都可用作动词和名词,但是它们表示的是不同程度的笑。要描述一个人的特定场合的笑只能用其中一个单词。因此,辨别这些词之间的微小差别成为写作选词的第一步,也是重要的工作。

一般来说,同义词之间的差别体现在文体层次、强调程度、感情色彩和搭配等方面。

(一)短语或介词短语动词更适合用于非正式文体

(二)英语中源于拉丁语和法语的词汇比英语本地语更正式,多用于正式或学术文体的写作

例如:

policeman—constable—bobby—cop

policeman和constable都属于中性词,bobby是口语,cop则属于俚语。

ask—beg—request

ask是中性词,beg是口语,而request则属于正式词汇。

(三)很多同义词带有明显的感情色彩

例如:

result—consequence

result是中性词,而consequence则带贬义。

little—small—tiny

little带有感情色彩,暗示“可爱的,令人愉悦的”;small是中性词,意为“不大”;tiny意为“极小的,微小的”,用来形容孩子时则强调孩子的非正常成长。

statesman—politician

两个词的本义都指“one who is skilled in the science of government or politics”。但是statesman带有褒义,指“a person with wisdom and skill in managing the affairs of state”(政治家)。而politician带有贬义,指“a person who is in politics merely for personal gain”(政客,玩弄权术者)。

(四)很多词汇在意义上是同义词,但在搭配上却有所不同

例如:

allow—let

allow sb.to do sth./let sb.do sth.

empty—vacant

empty box/street/room(no one or nothing inside)

vacant seat/chair/apartment(not occupied)

lump—chunk—slice—sheet—piece

a lump of sugar cheese/coal—a chunk of wood/chicken—a slice of meat/bread/fruit—a sheet of paper/ice—a piece of cake/string/paper/land

通常情况下,lump指无定形的块;chunk指厚块、厚片或大块;slice指切下的薄片;sheet指标准尺寸的如正方形或长方形的薄片/薄板,或一大片覆盖物或一大片/摊/堆移动的东西;piece常与of和不可数名词连用,指从一个整体上切下或分离出来的片、块、段。

在理解英语词汇的意思时,切忌将英语词汇与汉语词汇对等,因为要在汉语中找到一个与英语本义与含义完全相同的词几乎是不可能的。例如,“family”与“家”只在某一个层面相似。英语中的“family”指“people who are closely related,especially father,mother and their children”(家人)。汉语中的“家”除了这层意思,还包括一家人居住的房子。因此,我们在选用英语词汇,尤其是那些我们认为与汉语对等的词汇时,要特别小心。

五、习语

特殊意思的固定短语,其意思和组成这个习语的各个词的意思大不相同。例如read a book便不是一个习语,因为这个词组的意思就是组成它的三个词的意思的结合,而且a book还可以换成别的词,诸如a newspaper,a novel等。但read between the lines就不同了:组成这个短语的四个词单独都不表示这个短语的意思,而且换掉其中任何一个词,这个短语都无法使人看懂。

英语中的习语很丰富。下面各种类型的习语是最常见的:

习语常用于发言和文章中,使得语言自然、地道。学生在使用习语时应注意两点:

大多数习语用于非正式或口语化文体,谈话时可用;但少数是俚语,应慎用,如all balled up(使……变得紊乱/一团糟),to cough up(勉强说出或供出);很多习语由于用得太多而不再新鲜有趣,如armed to the teeth,as good as gold,因而以少用为宜。

六、修辞格

词可以有两种使用法:一是按本来的意思使用;一是按引申的意思使用。后一种用法也可说是比喻的或形象的用法,目的在于激发读者或听众的想象。在a colorful garden这个短语里,colorful是按词的本来意思使用的;但在a colorful life和a colorful career这两个短语里,colorful就是比喻的用法了。life和career本来都没有颜色,而修饰它们的colorful则有了新的引申或形象的意思:令人激动的、有趣的、多种多样的。由于这个词的使用使得life或career被比作一个像花园一样的有不同颜色的东西;正因为引起这一联想,这个词就比interesting或exciting等按本来意思用的词更容易给人留下深刻的印象。

词的比喻用法有很多种,称为修辞格。下面列出几种最常见的修辞格:

(一)明喻

用like,as或其他词指出两个截然不同的事物之间相似之处的手法叫明喻。

O my love's like a red,red rose. —Robert Burns

That man can't be trusted.He's as slippery as an eel.

The old man's hair is as white as snow.

在上面三个例句中,完全不同类别的人和物被放在一起进行比较:女人和玫瑰,男人和鳗鱼,头发和雪。但每一对都有一个共同点:美丽、油滑、白色。正因为被比较的事物有极大的差别,它们的共同点才显得格外鲜明。

(二)隐喻

用一个词来指代与该词本来所指事物有相似特点的另一个事物的手法叫隐喻。这也是一种比较。不过这个比较是暗含的,而不用as或like点明。假如彭斯把上面引的那个诗句写成O my love's a red,red rose;省去原有的like这个词,他便是用隐喻而不是明喻了。在改了的这句里,虽然也把my love比作rose,但没用一个词明确指示这个比较,因而rose此处是隐喻用法。同样地,在He is the soul of the team和Irrigation is the lifeblood of agriculture这两句中,soul和lifeblood也属隐喻用法。

隐喻不仅仅和be连用,也不只是名词才可以用作隐喻。请看下面的例句:

The picture of those poor people's lives was carved so sharply in his heart that he could never forget it.

There was a medieval magnificence about the big dining-hall.

The street faded into a country road with straggling houses by it.

There were a few lordly poplars before the house.

All his former joy was drowned in the embarrassment and confusion he was feeling at the moment.

He often prefaced his remarks by “I can't help thinking……”

The charcoal fire glowed and dimmed rhythmically to the strokes of the bellows.

上面的例句说明名词、动词、形容词和副词都可以有隐喻用法。隐喻总是暗含比较。以第四句为例,lordly这个词表示房前的白杨树高大挺拔而且庄严,好像古时的贵族(lord)一样。第六句中的prefaced这个词则把那个人习惯在说话前先说I can't help thinking……比作给书作序。

隐喻和明喻必须新鲜才能产生好的效果。用得太频繁或太久就会变得陈旧无趣,不能起到隐喻或明喻的作用了。the leg of a table中的leg在初用时,必定也是个隐喻,但今天我们倒觉得这是它的本义了。

(三)拟人

把事物或概念当作人或具备人的特质的手法,叫拟人。拟人在诗歌中很常见:

Youth is hot and bold,

Age is weak and cold,

Youth is wild,and Age is tame

—William Shakespeare

在这几行诗中,Youth和Age被当作两个人来描写。在散文中也用拟人手法,虽然不像在诗中那样常见。

The match will soon be over and defeat is staring us in the face.

This time fate was smiling to him.

Thunder roared and a pouring rain started.

Dusk came stealthily.

The storm was raging and an angry sea was continuously tossing their boat.

(四)换喻

用某一事物的名称代替与之密切相关的另一事物名称的手法叫换喻。例如crown可以代替king,the White House可以代替美国总统或政府,the bottle可以代替wine或alcohol,the bar可以代替the legal profession等。换喻用得好,则可产生简明生动的效果:

Sword and cross in hand,the European conquerors fell upon the Americans.

When the war was over,he laid down the sword and took up the pen.

His purse would not allow him that luxury.

(五)提喻

指用部分代表整体,或用整体代表部分:

The farms were short ofhands during the harvest season.

He had to earn his dailybread by doing odd jobs.

Germany beat Argentina 2 to 1 in this exciting football match.

The poorcreature could no longer endure her sufferings.

在上面的例句中,hands代表人,bread代表食物或生活费,两个国家名字代表两个球队,creature代表女人。

换喻和提喻有相似之处:二者都是一种替换,有时它们与隐喻不易区分,因为后者在一定程度上也是一种替换。

(六)婉言

即用温和或模糊的表达法替换生硬的或令人不快的表达法,例如:

很明显,一般人用委婉语是为了避免直接说出不愉快的事实,但政客们用委婉语则可能是为了欺骗公众。

(七)反语

这是指与真正的意思明显相反的词,用它的目的在于产生特殊的效果。假定你准备郊游,并且期待天气会很好,但是那天却下大雨。如果你不说天气糟透了,而说What fine weather for an outing!那就是用反语了。把野蛮的行为称作civilized或cultural,也是反语。

(八)夸大和缩小

前者是把事情说得过分;后者是把分量或程度压低。两者的目的相同,都在于使陈述或描写鲜明、有趣。

She is dying to know what job has been assigned her.

On hearing that he had been admitted to that famous university,he whispered to himself,“I'm the/luckiest man in the world.”

It took a few dollars to build this indoor swimming pool.

“He is really strange,”his friends said when they heard he had divorced his pretty and loving life.

(九)移位修饰

把修饰语从它本应修饰的名词之前移到与该名词有关的词之前的手法,叫移位修饰。当某人说I've had a busy day时,他就用了这个修辞手段,因为busy本应修饰人,现在却用来修饰day。类似的例子还有:

She was so worried about her son that she spent several sleepless nights.

In his quiet laziness he suddenly remembered that strange word.

The assistant kept a respectful distance from his boss when they were walking in the corridor.

He said“Yes”to the question in an unthinking moment.

The old man put a reassuring hand on my shoulder.

(十)矛盾修饰

意思矛盾的词有时可用在一起,以达到加深印象的目的:

The coach had to be cruel to be kind to his trainees.

When the news of the failure came,all his friends said that it was a victorious defeat.

The president was conspicuously absent on that occasion.

She read the long-awaited letter with a tearful smile.

(十一)头韵

两个或更多的词以相同的辅音字母开始,便构成头韵,如proud as a peacock和blind as a bat。头韵常用于诗中来突出意思上有联系的词:

Wherefore feed,and clothe,and save,

From the cradle to the grave,

Those ungrateful drones who would

Drain your sweat—nay,drink your blood?

—Percy Bysshe Shelley

在散文中有时也为了同样的目的而使用头韵:

I see also the dull,drilled,docile,brutish masses of the Hun soldiery plodding on like a swarm of crawling locusts.

The Russian danger is therefore our danger,...just as the cause of any Russian fighting for his hearth and home is the cause of free men and free peoples in every quarter of the globe.

(——上面两句选自丘吉尔在1941年就希特勒侵苏发表的演说。)

七、词的搭配

在英语写作过程中,选词不仅要恰当、具体、简洁、生动和形象,还要符合词的习惯用法,符合词和词之间的搭配关系。词语搭配大致可分为:动词与介词的搭配,名词、形容词与介词的搭配,动词与名词的搭配等。

(一)动词与介词的搭配

英语中,许多动词需要接上介词以后,意思才完整;一个动词搭配不同的介词,语义亦有所不同,这就使得动词与介词的搭配问题变得相当复杂。试比较下列句子:

I have nothing to write on.我无处可写。

I have nothing to write with.我没有写作工具。

I have nothing to write.我没素材可写。

上面前三个例句中,选用不同的介词,意思就大相径庭。由此可见,介词运用不当,往往造成病句,甚至使人产生误解。有些动词和介词的搭配有一定的规律性,但不是所有动词都如此。

所以,我们在学习语言的过程中,要注意比较,留心积累,在使用时不要生编硬造,要使用自己熟悉的、恰当的词语搭配。

(二)名词、形容词与介词的搭配

试体会下面几句的意思:

He has neither ear for music nor eye for painting.他对音乐和绘画都没有鉴赏力。

What is your attitude to this idea?这个主意你觉得如何?

He was tired of reciting the text word for word.他讨厌逐字地背诵课文。

许多名词和形容词与介词之间存在着固定的搭配关系。这类词组的构造没有太多的规律可循,应分别掌握每个词与介词的搭配。所以介词及其短语一向是英语学习的难点和重点,应不断摸索、总结和记忆,避免不必要的错误。

(三)动词与名词的搭配

动词与名词的搭配最难掌握,比如表示“给……做手术”要用perform an operation on,而不用make an operation on;表示“开支票”要用make out a check或write a check,而不用open a check。英语中某些动词与名词的搭配关系与汉语中词的搭配关系往往相去甚远,不可套用。比如汉语用同一个“开”字可以和许多名词搭配,而英语中这些对应的名同则要与不同的动词搭配。如:

英语中同一动词可以和不同的名词搭配表示不同的意思。请看下面的短语:

英语中也有许多不同的动词可以和同一名词搭配,表示相同的意思,比如:acquire/build up/cultivate/develop/form a habit都表示“养成习惯”;abandon/break off/cast aside/discard/get rid of/drop/shake off/cut out a habit则表示“改掉习惯”。用英语写作时应力求用词有所变化,避免重复。因此,这类同义词的搭配最能派上用场,应该用心体会,并加以利用。 il07tjSqy3iZwDTVrOeR/bfN+pFYWgTTaNhSVD6LsbMqKUBYpHOVNN1fKdbsj2Jy

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