句子(sentence)是能够表达完整思想的基本语法单位,通常由一个或多个分句构成。每个分句(clause)至少包含两个部分:主语(subject)和谓语(predicate)。分句分为独立分句(independent clause)和非独立分句(dependent clause)和非独立分句是可以单独成句的分句。例(1)~(3)中下划直线的部分就是独立分句。
(1) Jenny has been a teacher for over 3 years .
(2) Write down your answer now , although you may want to change it later .
(3) Because you never complain , people think you are satisfied .
例(2)和例(3)中,下划波浪线的部分不是独立分句,它们是非独立分句。非独立分句是由when,who,while,if,because等从属连词(subordinating conjunction)引导的分句;非独立分句不能独立成句,因为它不能表达一个完整的思想。非独立分句是独立分句的附属品,也称为从属分句或从句(subordinate clause)。
(一)简单句
简单句由一个独立分句组成,句中至少有一个主语和一个谓语动词。如:
(1) Henry seems unhappy now .
(2) Henry seems unhappy and doesn't know what to do next.
(3) Henry and Susan seem unhappy after their quarrel.
在例(1)~(3)中,下划单横线的部分是句子的主语部分,下划双横线的部分是句子的谓语部分。
写句子的时候要注意:句首的字母要大写,句末要有标点符号。句末标点有:句号(.)、问号(?)和感叹号(!)。如:
(4)What is in the box?
(5)Jane was a powerful woman.
(6)Do your homework!
(7)Would you pass me the salt?
(8)What a fine day it is!
[例(6)是一个祈使句,省略了主语you]
一个完整的句子必须至少有一个谓语动词,例(9)~(11)句中都缺少谓语动词,属于不完整句(fragment)。
(9)In order not to be late for school.
(10)Timmy an athlete.
(11)With a book in her hand.
以上几个不完整句可以补充适当内容,使之成为完整的句子。例如:
She gets up early on weekdays in order not to be late for school.
Timmy,an athlete,broke the record last month.
The teacher came in with a book in her hand.
(二)并列句
并列句包含两个或两个以上的独立分句(或简单句),分句间通过连接词(conjunction)或其他方式连接起来。构成并列句的每个分句都必须有主语和谓语,每个分句在句子中的地位相等。比如:
(1)Lisa is sensitive,and she is also intelligent.
并列句中的独立分句可以有三种方法连接。第一种方法是用逗号(,)和并列连词(coordinating conjunction)相连,如例(2)。第二种方法是由分号(;)和however,furthermore等连接副词(connective adverb)相连,副词后面还要加上一个逗号,如例(3)。第三种方法是直接由分号相连,如例(4)。
(2)I make resolutions every year,but I can hardly keep them.
(3)I make resolutions every year;however,I can hardly keep them.
(4)I make resolutions every year;I can hardly keep them.
并列句的连接可以用以下三个公式表示:
并列句式一:独立分句+,+并列连词+独立分句
并列句式二:独立分句+;+连接副词+,+独立分句
并列句式三:独立分句+;+独立分句
以下是常用的并列连词和连接副词:
并列句中,以下几种连接方法都是错误的:①各独立分句之间仅用逗号连接;②各独立分句之间只用逗号和连接副词连接;③各独立分句之间用分号和并列连词连接;④各独立分句之间既没有逗号、分号,也没有并列连词、连接副词。如:
(5)He wears a new blue shirt,his shoes are old.
He wears a new blue shirt,however,his shoes are old.
He wears a new blue shirt;but his shoes are old.
He wears a new blue shirt his shoes are old.
上述句子应分别改为:
He wears a new blue shirt;his shoes are old.
He wears a new blue shirt;however,his shoes are old.
He wears a new blue shirt,but his shoes are old.
He wears a new blue shirt;his shoes are old.
另外还需要注意的是:并列句的各个分句中,只有位于句首的分句首字母大写。如果分句不在句首,分句的首字母不大写。例(6)中的两个句子是错误的:
(6)He wears a new blue shirt,But his shoes are old.
He wears a new blue shirt;His shoes are old.
以上两句应改为:
He wears a new blue shirt,but his shoes are old.
He wears a new blue shirt;his shoes are old.
(三)复合句
复合旬由一个主句和一个或一个以上的从句组成,并在从句前用when,where,who,because,if,although等从属连词(subordinating conjunction)表明主句和从句之间的关系。主句(main clause)即独立分句,表述主要的意思;从句(dependent clause)即非独立分句,表述次要的意思。如以下例句中前一分句是从句,后一分句是主句:
(1) Unless I am mistaken , the text has six hundred pages .
不同类型的从句由不同的从属连词引导,以下是不同类型的从句中经常使用的连词:
形容词性从句(adjective clause)
◆关系代词(relative pronoun):who,whom,whose+noun,that,which
◆关系副词(relative adverb):when,where,why
副词性从句(adverb clause)
◆表示时间:when,while,as,as soon as,after,since
◆表示地点:where,wherever,everywhere
◆表示频率:as+adverb+as
◆表示方式:as,as if,how
◆表示原因:because,as,since
◆表示结果:so+adj./adv.+that,such a(n)+n.+that
◆表示目的:so that,in order that
◆表示让步:although,even though,though
◆表示条件:if,even if,unless,when
名词性从句(noun clause)
◆that,who,whoever,what,whatever,where,wherever,when,whenever,how much,how many,whether(not),if,why
我们将在下一节中给出各种常见复合句的例子。
复合句中的主句可以放在句首也可以放在句尾。如果主句在句首,主句和从句间不需要使用标点符号[如例(2)]。如果从句在句首,从句与主句间则需要用逗号隔开[如例(3)]。因此,复合句的两种基本结构为:
主句+从句
或
从句+,+主句
(2)She was tired because her mother always made her take out garbage,mow the grass and scrub the kitchen floor.
(3)When the office manager was on vacation,the secretary dealt with all the letters.
需要注意的是:从句不能独立成句。从句与主句之间不能使用句号,否则就是病句[如例(4)]。如从句在前,则必须用逗号将它与后面的主句隔开,否则也是病句[如例(5)]:
(4)As soon as I moved to my present house.I realized the difference between a rented apartment and a house of my own.
I realized the difference between a rented apartment and a house of my own.As soon as I moved to my present house.
以上句子应改为:
As soon as I moved to my present house,I realized the difference between a rented apartment and a house of my own.
I realized the difference between a rented apartment and a house of my own as soon as I moved to my present house.
(5)Although Harry never seems to open a book he does well in all his subjects.
这句可改为:
Although Harry never seems to open a book,he does well in all his subjects.
Harry does well in all his subjects although he never seems to open a book.
(四)并列复合句
并列复合句包含两个或两个以上主句及一个或一个以上的从句,是并列句和复合句的结合。比如:
(1)When he came in after sunset,the lamps were lit and shadows could be seen on the wall.
例(1)中有“the lamps were lit”及“shadows could be seen on the wall”两个主句,和一个分句“When he came in after sunset”。
请判断下列句子属于哪一种句子。
(2)He bought her a comb and gave her a watch.
(3)He bought her a comb,and she gave him a watch.
(4)He bought her a comb although he was busy during the trip.
(5)He bought her a comb,and she gave him a watch which was handed down from her grandfather.
例(2)~(5)分别是简单句、并列句、复合句和并列复合句。并列句中各分句地位基本相同,而复合句表达的主要意思包含在主句中,从句处于次要地位,为主句服务。
(一)陈述句
用来表达观点或事实的句子称为陈述句(declarative sentence)。陈述句是英语中最常见的句子,包括肯定(affirmative)结构与否定(negative)结构,句末使用句号。例如:
Browsing on the Internet is my favorite pastime.
上网浏览是我最喜欢的消遣。
Bill sent out many applications for a job,but hasn't got any replies yet.
比尔发出许多求职信,但至今仍未有任何回音。
Any person who provides encouragement and emotional support is a true friend.
能给予鼓励和情感上支持的人才是真正的朋友。
There aren't as many trees here as there used to be.
这里的树没有以前多了。
(二)疑问句
用来提问的句子称为疑问句(interrogative sentence)。疑问句主要分为一般疑问句(general question)、特殊疑问句(special question)、选择疑问句(alternative question)和附加疑问句(tag question)四种类型,句末用问号。例如:
Isn't the new edition of this book more expensive than its old edition?
这本书的新版不比它的旧版贵吗?
What's today's exchange rate for US dollars against Japanese yen?
今天美元对日元的汇率是多少?
Is your favorite winter outdoor activity skiing or skating?
你所喜爱的冬季户外活动是滑雪还是滑冰?
The youngsters' values are quite different from their parents' at present,aren't they?
现在年轻人的价值观与其父母的大不相同,是吗?
(三)祈使句
用来表达命令、要求、请求、劝告或建议的句子称为祈使句(imperative sentence)。祈使句的主语一般是第二人称you,在句中通常省略。祈使句的谓语用动词原形,其否定结构为“don't+动词原形”。句末一般使用句号或感叹号。
例如:
Be sure to take your personal belongings before getting off the train.
下火车前务必携带好个人物品。
Please send my kind regards to your parents.
请代我向你父母致以问候。
Let's not waste our time arguing about the current topic.
咱们不要再浪费时间争论当前这个话题了。
Don't hesitate to give me a call if you have any problem.
如果有问题请一定给我打电话。
(四)感叹句
用来抒发强烈感情的句子称为感叹句(exclamatory sentence)。如抒发喜悦、赞叹、惊异、愤怒、厌恶、痛苦之情等,句末用感叹号。what用来修饰名词;how用来修饰形容词、副词或动词。例如:
What a great idea(it is)!多好的主意啊!
Fine!Call the fire brigade!着火了!给消防员打电话!
How fast things are changing here!这里的一切变化真快呀!
Well,here we are at last!好了,终于到了!
一个语法结构完整的句子至少有一个主语和一个谓语动词;假使那是个及物动词,还得有一个宾语;若是个系动词,则必须有一个表语或补语:
He came.
She wrote a letter.
Dr.Smith is a professor.
必须记住句子的这种基本结构;不然的话,初学者就会造出没有主语或谓语动词,或两者都没有的句子,如Have done it,Raining,How to use it?正确的句子应该是:I have done it,It is raining,How do you use it?
定语和状语虽不是句子中不可缺少的成分,但有助于表达清楚或完整的意思:
He came to the classroom very early.
She wrote a long letter to her parents.
Dr.Smith is a well-known professor of physics.
一个完整的句子以大写字母开始,以句号结束。这也是初学者应该记住的一个简单的规则,因为写中文时可用逗号将完整的句子分开。写英文时用逗号代替句号、分号、冒号或破折号叫“逗号错”,这是中国学生需要避免的。
标明是faulty的两句话并没有语法错误;它们的问题就是误用了逗号。这两句话包括五个短而完整的句子,它们的末尾都该用句号或分号。
不难看出,改后的句子有不同的着重点。究竟着重哪一点为好要由上下文和作者的意图来定。
下面的例句中用冒号、分号或破折号:
在小说中偶尔有用逗号连接两个意思紧密联系的短句的情况;但在说明文中,不管句子长短,完整的句子后都用句号。
前面说过造句时应注意使句子结构完整,避免写出缺少主语或谓语动词的句子。但有经验的作家有时为了取得特殊的效果也用不完整的句子。
It is hard to hear a new voice,as hard as it is to listen to an unknown language……
Why?—Out of fear.The world fears a new experience more than it fears anything.Because a new experience displaces so many old experiences.And it is like trying to use muscles stiff for ages.It hurls horribly.
—D.H.Lawrence
He was,I think,very handsome.I gather this from photographs and from my own memories of him,dressed in his Sunday best and on his way to preach a sermon somewhere,when I was little.Handsome,proud,and ingrown,“like a toe-nail,”somebody said.
—James Baldwin
在上面第一篇中有三个不完整的句子(“Why?”“Out of fear.”以及“Because a new experience……”),在第二篇中有一个(“Handsome,proud……”)。读者会感到这几句很有分量,因为它们没有表达其他的意思,主要的意思就突出了。但这种句子要慎用,最好在有些写作经验之后再用。