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翻译时不能简单地或机械地逐字照译，硬凑成英文，必须认真分析上下文，掌握词的确切含义，然后用适当的英文表达，必要时需要变换一些词，如“小记者”译成teenage reporter，“深感忧虑”译成deeply concerned等，都是采用了变通手段。
1．词类转换
词类转换是翻译中常见的手段，通过词类的转换可以突破原文的句式，引起句法的转换，如“近来，研究人员发现感冒可以通过人的手传染。”可译为Recent research discoveries indicate that flu can be spread by handcontacts.原文中的“发现”是动词，而译文根据上下文的需要，灵活地把动词转换成名词discoveries。词类的转换常见的有以下几种情况：
(1)名词译成动词
a. 这只船容易倾覆是因为它的造型不合理。
This boat is aptto overturn because it is unreasonably shaped.
比较：This boat is apt to overturn because its shape is unreasonable.
显然，第一种译法(即转换译法)比第二种译法较好，因为它是英语常见的习惯表达法，而后一种译法比较生硬。
b. 这座工厂的先进的安装线与合理的生产组织给我们留下深刻的印象。
The factoryimpressed us deeply with its advanced assembly lines and the reasonableorganization of production.
句中“给我们留下深刻印象”也可以译成made a strong impression on us that...但是这样一来，句子的其他部分就会弄得很复杂，不如译成动词短语为好。
c. 他们的结论是新方法有很多优点。
They concludedthat the new method had a lot of advantages.
此句当然也可译成：Their conclusion was that the new method had a lot of advantages.
如果孤立地看，两种译法都可以，难分优劣。但是如果把这句话放在一定的上下文中，情况就不同了。例如在原句的前面加上一句话，就成为：“有人问起他们哪一种方法更好时，他们的结论是新方法有很多优点。”
在这样的语言环境中，其后半句就只能采用第一种译法，而不能采用第二种译法，如可以译成：When asked which method was better, they concluded that…(或they arrived at the conclusionthat…)而不能译成：Whenasked which method was better, their conclusion was that...
由此可见，转换仅仅是一种技巧，而不是绝对规律，并不是在任何情况下都必须运用这种技巧，而只是在一定条件下才能运用。它的目的在于：a发挥英语的优势，减少汉语的痕迹；b使语言更经济；c协调上下文；d避免语言单调。
(2)动词译成名词
a. 我们的图书馆正在改建中。
Our library isunder reconstruction. 比...is being reconstructed更为正式。
b. 这台备用发电机是在万一停电时使用的。
This emergencygenerator is used in case of the interruption of service(in case of powerinterruption) 比incase the service／thepower is interrupted更加书面化。
c. 他做实验时心不在焉，几乎引起化学药物爆炸。
Hisabsent-mindedness during experimenting nearly caused an explosion of thechemical.
这种译法语言比较经济而且文体正式。
d. 消防队员奋战了好几小时，才控制住了火势。
The firemenbattled against the flames for several hours before getting them under control.比译成before theycontrolled them更符合英语表达习惯。
(3)动词译成形容词
a. 我们确信这个实验是会成功的。
We are sure thatthe experiment will turn out a success.
b. 世界上只有海水取之不尽，用之不竭。
In our worldonly the sea water is inexhaustible.
(4)动词译成介词或介词短语
a. 由于老板拒绝工人们提高工资的要求，工人们决定继续罢工。
Since the bosshad refused their demand for higher pay, the workers decided to go on striking.
b. 她抱着满满的一堆衣服走进房去。
She walked intothe room with her arms full of clothes.
c. 他总是打开窗子睡觉。
He always sleepswith the windows open.
d. 她说她是来拿那些文件的。
She said she camefor those documents.
以上例句表明介词在英语中很活跃，大多数习惯用法都和介词有直接或间接的关系。因此翻译中要做到发挥英语优势，首先必须注意发挥介词的作用。
2．句型的转换
所谓句型的转换是指在翻译一个句子时，不必拘泥于原文的固有形式，可以根据需要将其译成所要求的句型。例如把它译成简单句、复句或并列句。而要做到这一点，必须清楚句中各个成分之间的转换关系：如哪些成分可以相互转化，在什么条件下相互转化等。
以下是句型转换的各种情况以及转换的条件：
(1) 简单句与复合句之间的转换
简单句与复合句之间的转换，一般有以下几种情况：
◆定语从句与其他词类的转换
①这就是同济大学建筑系三年级的两个学生共同设计的那座旅馆。
a. This is thehotel designed jointly by two of the third year students of the ArchitectureDepartment of Tongji University.(简单句)
b. This is thehotel which was designed jointly by two of the third year students of theArchitecture Department of Tongji University.
c. This is thehotel which two of the third year students of the Architecture Department ofTongji University designed jointly.(复合句)
以上三种译法中a句和b句是常见的，其中以a句更简洁。c句不够理想，因为从句中的主语太长，谓语太短。
②他是第一个飞越大西洋的人。
a. He was thefirst man to fly across the Atlantic.(不定式)
b. He was thefirst man that flew across the Atlantic.(定语从句)
c. He was thefirst man flying across the Atlantic.(分词)
以上三句译文中第一句最普通，第二句次之，第三句较少用。一般说来，修饰带有最高级形容词的前述词的定语从句，通常可转换为不定式。
③这就是要改建成为汽车间的那间房子。
This is the roomto be adapted for use as a garage.(=This is the room that will be adapted foruse as a garage.)
◆状语从句与其他词类的转换
①状语从句与分词之间的转换
状语从句与作状语的分词短语之间并无明确分工。大多数状语从句都可以变换成为相应的分词短语，后者多用于书面文体。
a. 走进大厅，我们就发现它的内部结构很宏伟。
Entering the greathall, we found its interior structure was very magnificent.(=When we enteredthe great hall, we found…)
b. 由于不知道怎样使用这些精密仪器，他们请实验员做一次示范表演。
Not knowing how touse these precision instruments, they asked the laboratory technician to give ademonstration of them.(=Because／As they didn’t know how to use…)
②状语从句与作状语的不定式之间的变换关系
不定式作状语的功能范围远不及分词广泛。在科技语言中，不定式通常只在以下几种场合用作状语：即目的、结果和程度等。也只有在这几种情况下才有可能和状语从句互相转换。
为了解决交通阻塞问题，我们做了大量的调查研究。
In order tosolve the problem of traffic jam, we have made a large amount of investigations.(=Inorder that the problem of traffic jam can be solved, …)
用不定式比用状语从句更简洁。
③状语从句与分词独立结构的转换
状语从句有时也可以和分词独立结构相互转换，这种结构的特点是它只用于书面语而不用于口语。
a. 屋顶有漏洞，房子需要修理。
There beingleaks in the roof, the house needs repair.(=Since there are leaks in the roof，the house needs repair.)
b. 如果从全面考虑，他的计划值得推荐。
All thingsconsidered, his method is worthy of recommendation.(=If all things areconsidered, …)
④状语从句与介词短语的转换
很多状语从句都可以用介词短语来代替。
a. 一到达火车站，他就发现家乡已经大大地变样了。
On arriving atthe station, he found his hometown had greatly changed.(=As soon as he arrivedat the station, …)
b. 这房子尽管富丽堂皇，但是住起来一点也不舒服。
With all itsmagnificence, the house is not at all comfortable to live in.(=Though the houseis magnificent, it is not at all comfortable to live in.)
◆名词从句与其他词类的转换
a. 他坚持要我们把调查的结果公诸于众。
He insisted onour making public the results of our investigations.(=He insisted that we makepublic the results of our investigations.)
b. 他们充分利用废旧材料修理房屋的做法是值得高度赞扬的。
Their making fulluse of the scrap and waste materials in repairing houses deserves highcommendation.
◆由it引导的复合句与简单句的转换
a. 这只表似乎修过好几次了。
It seems thatthe watch has been repaired for many times.(=The watch seems to have beenrepaired for many times.)
b. 她可能已经服用了过量的安眠药。
It is possiblethat she has taken an overdose of sleeping pills.(=She may have taken anoverdose of sleeping pills.)
(2) 并列句与简单句的转换
带有因果关系的并列句常常可以转换为简单句。
①他精通数学，因此决定毕业后教数学。
a. He had a goodcommand of mathematics, and so he decided to teach mathematics after graduation.(并列句)
b. Having a goodcommand of mathematics, he decided to teach mathematics after graduation.(简单句)
②这间房子的窗子很大，能让足够的阳光进入室内。
a. The window ofthis room is very large, hence it can admit an adequate amount of sunlight.(并列句)
b. The window ofthis room is large enough to admit an adequate amount of sunlight.(简单句)
有时，表示条件或补充说明的并列句也可以转换为简单句。例如：
③这是一只灭火器，只有在紧急情况下才使用。
a. This is afire extinguisher, and it is used only in emergency.(并列句)
b. As a fireextinguisher, it is only used in emergency.(简单句)
(3)并列句与复合句的转换
◆非限制性定语从句与并列分句的转换
①这是我们镇上最豪华的旅馆了，它是我们大学建筑系的一个学生设计的。
a. This is themost luxurious hotel in our town, which was designed by a student of theArchitecture Dept. of our University.(复合句)
b. This is themost luxurious hotel in our town, and it was designed by a student of theArchitecture Dept. of our University.(并列句)
②昨天我们参观了镇上的博物馆，在那里我看到了许多珍贵的昆虫标本。
a. Yesterday wepaid a visit to the town’s museum, where we saw a lot of rare insect specimens.(复合句)
b. Yesterday wepaid a visit to the town’s museum, and there we saw a lot of rare insect specimens.(并列句)
◆时间状语从句与并列分句的转换
①我们还没有来得及把话讲完，接线员就把我们挂断了。
a. The telephoneoperator cut us off before we had finished our conversation.(复合句)
b. We had notyet finished our conversation, and then we were cut off by the telephoneoperator.(并列句)
②火车刚一启动，就加速到每小时八十英里。
a. Hardly hadthe train started moving when it accelerated to 80 miles an hour.(复合句)
b. The train hadjust started moving，and almost simultaneously it accelerated to 80 miles an hour.(并列句)
◆原因或让步从句与并列分句的转换
因为市中心被交通事故堵塞了，我们不得不绕道而行。
a. We had to makea detour to avoid the busy center of the town, because it was blocked by thetraffic accident.(复合句)
b. The busycenter of the town was blocked by the traffic accident, so we had to make adetour to avoid it.(并列句)
◆祈使句+and／or结构与复合句的转换
①用玻璃棒慢慢地搅拌这种液体，它就会越来越稠厚。
a. Stir theliquid slowly with a glass rod, and it will become denser and denser.(并列句)
b. If you stirthe liquid slowly with a glass rod, it will become denser and denser.(复合句)
②这里不准停车，否则罚款五元。
a. Don’t parkyour car here, or you will be fined 5 dollars.(祈使句)
b. If you parkyour car here, you will be fined 5 dollars.(复合句)
(4) 复合句之间的相互转换
所谓复合句的转换是指复合句中从句与从句之间的转换。这种转换并不改变复合句的性质。
◆定语从句与状语从句的转换
王教授精通好几种外语，他有资格在那种场合担任译员。
Professor Wang, whohas a good command of several foreign languages, is qualified to be aninterpreter on that occasion.
也可译成：
As professorWang has a good command of several foreign languages, he is qualified to be aninterpreter on that occasion.
◆主句与从句的互相转换
①他走进来时，电话铃正在响。
When he entered,the telephone was ringing.
也可译成：
He entered whilethe telephone was ringing.
②他到达机场时飞机已经起飞。
When he reachedthe airport, the airliner had taken off.
也可译成：
He reached theairport after the airliner had taken off.
3．主被动语态的转换
翻译中关于被动语态的转换一般有以下几种情况：
(1) 被动译成被动
如果原文的动词中含有“被”、“由”、“为”、“受”、“靠”、“所”、“把”、“得到”、“加以”、“予以”等字样时，译成英语通常用被动词态。例句：
a. 这个实验该由学生们自己去做。
This experimentshould be done by the students themselves.
b. 关于如何改进市民的居住条件问题已由市政府予以充分重视。
Full attentionhas been paid by the municipal government to the improvement of the housingconditions of the urban inhabitants.
(2) 主动译成被动
主动译成被动，一般有两种情况：
有些汉语句子，虽然在形式上是主动的，但是在含义上却是被动的。因此在翻译时，应当使用被动语态。例如：
a. 随着科学技术的发展，化学能是很容易转变为电能的。
With thedevelopment of science and technology, chemical energy can readily be changedinto electric energy.
b. 又一座立交桥将于年底通车。
Another flyoverwill be opened to traffic by the end of this year.
c. 她已经动过三次手术了。
She has beenoperated on for three times.
d. 很容易看出这录音机已经修理过好几次了。
It can easily beseen that the recorder has been repaired several times.
有些以地点和时间为主语的汉语句子，也常常译成被动语态。例如：
a. 众所周知，中国八百年前，就发明了火箭。
As is known toall, the rocket was invented in China over 800 years ago.
b. 他说三个月就能完成这项工程。
He said thisproject could be completed within 3 months.
c. 每十分钟生产一台机器是完全可能的。
It is quitepossible that a machine is turned out in every 10 minutes.
(3) 被动含义译成主动形式
有时汉语中的被动句子也可以译成主动语态。主要有两种情况：
英语中有些被动含义的句子习惯上以主动形式来表达。例如：
a. 这一章需要重写。
This chapterneeds rewriting.(=this chapter needs to be rewritten.)
b. 这篇论文值得一读。
This thesis isworth reading.
c. 干柴容易燃烧。
Dry wood burnseasily.
d. 那本小说很畅销。
That novel sellsvery well.
e. 这扇窗子打不开。
This window willnot open.
有些被动句子可以通过词汇手段将其译成主动形式。例如：
a. 由于好些字母已被磨损，招牌已经看不清楚了。
The sign was nolonger legible because much of the lettering had worn away.(比较：The sign could no longer beread easily because…)
b. 许多星星用肉眼是看不见的。
Many stars are invisibleto the naked eye.(比较：Many stars are not seen with the naked eye.)
(4) 主动含义译成被动形式——系表结构
有些主动句子译成英语时，在形式上和被动语态一样，但实际上是一种系表结构(系词+过去分词)，这种结构通常用以表示状态。例如：
a. 花园的门是关着的。
The garden gatewas closed.
比较：It was closed by the ranger.(被动)
b. 家具上布满了灰尘。
The furniture iscoated with dust.
比较：The iron door was coated with a layer of paint to prevent it fromrusting.(被动)
c. 我们已经作好最坏的准备。
We have beenprepared for the worst to happen.
比较：The breakfast has been prepared.(被动)
4．增词法与减词法
译文的增词、减词都是为了更确切、更忠实地表达原文的内容和精神。译文中添加一些原文没有的词句，表面上看似不忠实，但仔细分析就会发现这些增加的词句所表达的意思并非无中生有，而是隐含在原文中的。减词是在不影响原文意思的情况下省略无关紧要的词语，避免拖泥带水。如“感冒可以通过人的手传染”可以译为flu can be spread by hand contacts，其中的contacts就是根据译文需要添加上的。而“百姓出现吃饭点灯难现象”中的“现象”一词可以省略，译成people do not even have matches to light their stoves就足以表达原文中的信息。
◆增词法
其主要目的使译文符合英语的语法结构和表达习惯，一般在以下情况下需要增词：
(1) 增添必要的代词。
a. 没有调查就没有发言权。
He who makes no investigationand study has no right to speak.
b. 交出翻译之前必须读几遍，看看有没有要修改的地方。
Before handingin your translation, you have to read it over and over again and see if thereis anything in it to be corrected or improved.
(2) 增添必要的冠词。
我们对问题作全面地分析，才能解决得妥当。
We must make a comprehensiveanalysis of a problem before it can be properly solved.
(3) 增添必要的介词。
a. 你是白天工作还是夜间工作。
Do you work indaytime or at night?
b. 地区没什么城乡差别。
There is little differencebetween town and country in this region.
(4) 增添必要的连接词语。
a. 虚心使人进步，骄傲使人落后。
Modesty helpsone to go forward, whereas conceit makes one lag behind.
b. 留得青山在，不怕没柴烧。
So long as greenhills remain, there will never be a shortage of firewood.
(5) 增添必要的背景解释性词语。
a. 班门弄斧。
Showing off one’sproficiency with the ax before Lu Ban the master carpenter.
b. 这真是俗话说的，“旁观者清”。
It is just asthe proverb goes, “The onlooker sees most of the game .”
◆减词法
减词法即缩略法。尽管汉语比较简练，有时也会出现重复罗嗦、拖泥带水的语言现象，适当的减掉一些词语，能使英文显得更流畅简洁。主要有以下几种情形：
(1) 省略不必要的重复、冗词之类的赘言。例如：
我们说，长征是历史记录上的第一次，长征是宣言书，长征是宣传队，长征是播种机。
We answer thatthe Long March is the first of its kind in the annals of history, that it is amanifesto, a propaganda force, a seeding-machine.
(2) 省略概念范畴类的词语。例如：
她的朋友听到她家中的困难情况后，都主动伸出援助之手。
After herfriends heard about her family difficulties, they offered her a helping hand.
(3) 省略过详的细节描述。例如：
花园里面是人间的乐园，有的是吃不了的大白米面，穿不完的绫罗绸缎，花不完的金银财宝。
The garden was aparadise on earth, with more food and clothes than could be consumed and moremoney than could be spent.